The Science of Decision Making

• Introduction
• Chapter 1: The Foundations of Decision-Making: A Cognitive Overview
• Chapter 2: The Two Systems of Thinking: Intuitive vs. Deliberate
• Chapter 3: The Influence of Emotions on Decision-Making
• Chapter 4: Common Cognitive Biases: Traps in Our Thinking
• Chapter 5: Overcoming Cognitive Biases: Strategies for Rationality
• Chapter 6: Introduction to Data-Driven Decision-Making
• Chapter 7: Gathering and Preparing Data for Analysis
• Chapter 8: Statistical Thinking for Better Decisions
• Chapter 9: Data Visualization: Seeing the Story in Your Data
• Chapter 10: Predictive Analytics: Forecasting the Future
• Chapter 11: Introduction to Behavioral Economics
• Chapter 12: Prospect Theory and Loss Aversion
• Chapter 13: Framing Effects and Choice Architecture
• Chapter 14: Nudging: Influencing Choices for Good
• Chapter 15: Applying Behavioral Economics in Real Life
• Chapter 16: The GOFER Model for Effective Decision-Making
• Chapter 17: Decision Matrices and Prioritization Techniques
• Chapter 18: Risk Assessment and Management
• Chapter 19: Scenario Planning and Contingency Thinking
• Chapter 20: Ethical Considerations in Decision-Making
• Chapter 21: Case Study: Optimizing Business Decisions with Data
• Chapter 22: Case Study: Improving Healthcare Outcomes Through Behavioral Insights
• Chapter 23: Case Study: Personal Finance Decisions and Long-Term Planning
• Chapter 24: Case Study: Leadership and Strategic Decision-Making
• Chapter 25: Case Study: Navigating Career Choices with Clarity

Decision-making is a fundamental aspect of the human experience. Every single day, we are faced with a constant stream of choices, ranging from the trivial – what to wear, what to eat – to the life-altering – career paths, relationships, financial investments. The cumulative impact of these decisions, both large and small, shapes our lives, determines our successes, and ultimately defines who we are. It's tempting to believe that we approach these decisions with cool rationality, carefully weighing pros and cons and selecting the optimal course of action. However, the reality is far more nuanced and, frankly, far more fascinating.

This book, "The Science of Decision Making: How to Make Smarter Choices Using Psychology, Data, and Behavioral Economics," is a journey into the intricate workings of the human mind as it grapples with choices. We will explore the cognitive processes that underpin decision-making, unveiling the neural pathways and brain regions that orchestrate this complex activity. We'll delve into the often-unconscious biases and heuristics – mental shortcuts – that influence our judgments, sometimes leading us astray from the "rational" path. We are, after all, not purely logical beings; emotion, intuition, and past experiences all play significant, often surprising, roles.

A key theme of this book is the integration of three powerful perspectives: psychology, data analysis, and behavioral economics. Psychology provides the foundation, revealing the cognitive architecture and emotional landscape of decision-making. Data analysis equips us with the tools to extract meaningful insights from the ever-growing flood of information available to us. And behavioral economics bridges the gap between theory and practice, showing how real people, with all their quirks and biases, actually make decisions in the real world.

The book is structured to provide a comprehensive understanding, moving from the individual's internal world to the external application of decision-making principles. We begin by examining the psychological factors that shape our choices, then explore the power of data to inform and improve those choices. We will then dive into the insights from behavioral economics and discover proven frameworks and strategies, including real-world applications.

By the end of this book, you will have a deep understanding of the forces that shape your decisions and the decisions of those around you. More importantly, you will be equipped with practical tools and strategies to make better choices in all aspects of your life, from your personal finances to your professional endeavors. This is not about eliminating intuition or emotion; it's about harnessing them, understanding them, and combining them with the power of data and rational thought to navigate the complexities of life with greater clarity, confidence, and success. It's about becoming a more conscious, deliberate, and effective decision-maker.

The human brain, a three-pound universe of intricate folds and interconnected networks, is the ultimate decision-making machine. Every action we take, from the seemingly automatic to the deeply considered, is the result of a complex cascade of neural events. Understanding these foundational cognitive processes is the first step on our journey to unraveling the science of decision-making. It's not about reducing the human experience to mere electrical impulses and chemical reactions; it's about appreciating the sheer elegance and complexity of the system that allows us to navigate the world, make choices, and shape our destinies.

Imagine you're standing in front of a vending machine, parched after a long walk. The seemingly simple act of choosing a beverage involves a surprisingly intricate dance within your brain. First, your visual system processes the array of options, identifying colors, shapes, and familiar logos. This information is relayed to areas like the visual cortex, where the brain begins to categorize and interpret the sensory input. Memories are triggered – perhaps a past positive experience with a particular brand, or a negative one with another. These memories, stored in the hippocampus and other brain regions, subtly influence your preferences.

Simultaneously, your brain is assessing your internal state. The hypothalamus, a tiny but crucial structure, monitors your body's hydration levels, sending signals that amplify your thirst. This internal drive, combined with the external stimuli of the vending machine, begins to narrow your focus. The amygdala, the brain's emotional center, might also chime in. Perhaps you associate a particular drink with a feeling of comfort or excitement. This emotional coloring further influences your leanings. All of this happens within a fraction of a second, largely beneath your conscious awareness.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC), often hailed as the "executive control center" of the brain, now takes center stage. This region, located just behind your forehead, is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like planning, reasoning, and, crucially, decision-making. The PFC doesn't operate in isolation; it's constantly communicating with other brain areas, receiving inputs from the sensory cortex, the memory centers, and the emotional hubs. It's like a conductor leading an orchestra, integrating diverse streams of information to arrive at a coherent decision.

Within the PFC, specific sub-regions play specialized roles. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is particularly important for goal-directed behavior and evaluating options based on past experiences and future consequences. It's the part of your brain that weighs the short-term pleasure of a sugary drink against the long-term benefits of choosing water. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), on the other hand, is more closely linked to emotional processing and integrating gut feelings into decisions. It's the area that might nudge you toward a particular brand because it "feels right," even if you can't articulate a logical reason.

The interaction between these regions is dynamic and fluid. Imagine a scenario where you're trying to decide whether to accept a new job offer. The dlPFC might be analyzing the salary, benefits, and career advancement opportunities, while the vmPFC is processing your feelings about leaving your current job, the potential for a new and challenging environment, and your overall sense of well-being. These two regions might even engage in a kind of "tug-of-war," with the dlPFC advocating for the rational, long-term benefits and the vmPFC pulling you toward the emotionally comfortable, or exciting, option.

This internal debate is facilitated by neurotransmitters, chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. Dopamine, often associated with pleasure and reward, plays a key role in motivating us to pursue certain choices. When you anticipate a positive outcome, dopamine levels surge, creating a sense of anticipation and driving you toward that option. Serotonin, another crucial neurotransmitter, influences mood, patience, and risk aversion. Higher levels of serotonin might make you more inclined to choose a safer, less risky option, while lower levels might lead to more impulsive choices.

The brain doesn't just passively receive and process information; it actively constructs our perception of reality. This constructive process is heavily influenced by our past experiences, beliefs, and expectations. For example, if you've had a negative experience with a particular product in the past, your brain might automatically downplay its positive attributes and amplify its negative ones, even if the current situation is different. This is not to say that our decisions are entirely predetermined, but rather that our brains are constantly filtering and interpreting information through the lens of our individual histories.

Consider the act of choosing a restaurant for dinner. Your brain doesn't simply scan a list of restaurants and objectively rank them. Instead, it draws on a vast network of associations – past dining experiences, reviews you've read, recommendations from friends, even the mood you're in at the moment. These associations create a mental landscape, where certain restaurants are highlighted as more appealing, while others fade into the background. This landscape is constantly shifting, influenced by new information and changing preferences. It is important to remember that a decision is not a single, isolated event, but rather the culmination of a continuous process of information gathering, evaluation, and integration.

Furthermore, the brain is remarkably adaptable. It's constantly rewiring itself in response to new experiences and learning. This neuroplasticity, as it's called, means that our decision-making processes are not fixed; they can be refined and improved over time. By understanding how the brain makes decisions, we can begin to identify strategies for optimizing this process, overcoming biases, and making choices that are more aligned with our goals and values.

This intricate interplay of brain regions, neurotransmitters, and past experiences highlights the complexity of even the simplest decisions. The conscious deliberation we experience is just the tip of the iceberg; beneath the surface lies a vast and dynamic network of neural activity that shapes our choices in ways we are only beginning to understand. Far from making a quick decision, with little thought about the matter, our subconscious does a lot of work for us that we aren't necessarily immediately aware of. This, however, enables us to do all the things that we are capable of doing, without having to do them consciously.

The brain's efficiency in handling routine decisions allows us to conserve cognitive resources for more complex and demanding tasks. Imagine if you had to consciously deliberate every aspect of driving a car, from steering to braking to changing gears. You'd be quickly overwhelmed. Instead, the brain automates many of these processes, allowing you to focus on navigating traffic and reaching your destination. This automation is achieved through the formation of habits, which are essentially neural pathways that have been strengthened through repetition.

This "dual-process" model of decision-making, where automatic, intuitive processes interact with slower, more deliberate ones, is a recurring theme in cognitive science. The intuitive system, often referred to as "System 1," is fast, effortless, and largely unconscious. It's the system that allows you to catch a ball thrown at you without consciously calculating its trajectory. The deliberate system, "System 2," is slower, more effortful, and requires conscious attention. It's the system you use to solve a complex math problem or make a major financial decision.

The interplay between these two systems is not always harmonious. Sometimes, System 1's quick, intuitive judgments can lead us astray, especially in situations that require careful analysis and consideration. This is where cognitive biases, systematic errors in thinking, come into play. These biases are often the result of System 1 taking shortcuts, relying on heuristics, or mental rules of thumb, that can be efficient but also prone to errors.

For example, the availability heuristic leads us to overestimate the likelihood of events that are easily recalled, often because they are vivid or recent. This can explain why people are often more afraid of flying than driving, even though statistically, driving is far more dangerous. The dramatic images of plane crashes are more readily available in our memory, making them seem more probable.

Understanding these cognitive biases is crucial for improving our decision-making skills. By becoming aware of the traps our minds can fall into, we can learn to recognize them, mitigate their influence, and make more rational choices. This doesn't mean suppressing intuition altogether; it means learning to use it wisely, recognizing when it's likely to be helpful and when it's likely to lead us astray. A skilled decision-maker knows how to balance intuition with careful analysis, leveraging the strengths of both System 1 and System 2.

The cognitive architecture of decision-making is not a static entity; it's a dynamic and evolving system that is constantly being shaped by our experiences and interactions with the world. This adaptability is what allows us to learn from our mistakes, refine our strategies, and become more effective decision-makers over time. It's a journey of continuous improvement, driven by the remarkable plasticity of the human brain. It is never too late to start thinking differently and changing our habits, to live better, and to achieve more.

We like to think of ourselves as rational beings, carefully weighing options and making logical choices. But the truth is, our minds operate on two fundamentally different tracks, often without us even realizing it. These two systems, often called System 1 and System 2, are at the heart of how we process information, make judgments, and ultimately, make decisions. Understanding their distinct characteristics and how they interact is crucial to grasping the complexities of human decision-making.

System 1, the intuitive system, is the speed demon of the pair. It's fast, automatic, effortless, and largely unconscious. Think of it as the autopilot of your brain, handling routine tasks and making snap judgments without requiring your conscious attention. This system is responsible for a wide range of cognitive processes, including recognizing faces, understanding simple language, reacting to danger, and forming initial impressions. It relies heavily on heuristics, those mental shortcuts that allow us to navigate the world efficiently.

System 1 is always "on," constantly processing information from the environment and generating intuitive responses. It's the system that allows you to walk down a crowded street without consciously calculating every step, or to understand the tone of someone's voice without analyzing each individual word. It's also the system that forms quick impressions of people – that "gut feeling" you get when you meet someone for the first time. These impressions are often based on limited information and can be influenced by unconscious biases, but they serve a crucial purpose in allowing us to quickly assess situations and react accordingly.

System 1 is also highly emotional. It's the seat of our gut reactions, our fears, and our desires. When you feel a sudden surge of fear when you see a snake, or a wave of excitement when you hear your favorite song, that's System 1 in action. These emotions are not simply irrational distractions; they provide valuable information and can guide us toward beneficial choices. However, they can also lead us astray if they are not properly regulated. It has evolved over millions of years to help us survive in a complex and often dangerous world.

In contrast, System 2, the deliberate system, is the slow, methodical thinker. It's effortful, conscious, and requires our focused attention. Think of it as the "manual override" of your brain, engaged when you need to solve a complex problem, make a careful decision, or learn a new skill. System 2 is responsible for logical reasoning, analytical thinking, and deliberate planning. It's the system you use to solve a math problem, write an essay, or compare different car insurance policies.

System 2 requires significant cognitive effort and can be easily depleted. When you're tired, stressed, or distracted, System 2's ability to function effectively is impaired. This is why we are more likely to make impulsive decisions or rely on heuristics when we are under pressure or mentally fatigued. It's also why it's so difficult to resist temptation when we're tired – our System 2, which is responsible for self-control, is simply too exhausted to override System 1's impulsive desires. The more you use System 2, the more it becomes active.

The relationship between System 1 and System 2 is not one of opposition, but rather of collaboration and, sometimes, conflict. System 1 constantly generates impressions, intuitions, and feelings, which System 2 can then endorse, reject, or modify. Imagine you're driving and suddenly see a child run into the street. System 1 immediately triggers a fear response and initiates a braking action. System 2 then kicks in, assessing the situation more carefully and adjusting your steering to avoid hitting the child.

In many cases, System 1 and System 2 work together seamlessly. System 1 provides the initial, intuitive response, and System 2 monitors and refines it as needed. However, there are also situations where System 1's quick judgments can lead to errors, especially when the situation is complex or requires careful analysis. This is where cognitive biases come into play. These biases are often the result of System 1 taking shortcuts, relying on heuristics that can be efficient but also prone to errors.

For example, the confirmation bias, the tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms our pre-existing beliefs, is largely a product of System 1. Our intuitive system tends to favor information that aligns with our existing worldview, making it easier and faster to process. System 2 can override this bias, but it requires conscious effort and a willingness to challenge our own assumptions. Similarly, the availability heuristic, which leads us to overestimate the likelihood of events that are easily recalled, is also driven by System 1's reliance on readily available information.

The interplay between System 1 and System 2 also has implications for how we learn and acquire new skills. When you're first learning a new skill, such as playing a musical instrument or driving a car, it requires significant System 2 effort. You have to consciously focus on every movement, every note, every rule of the road. However, with practice, these actions become increasingly automated, shifting from System 2 to System 1 control. This is why experienced musicians can play complex pieces without consciously thinking about every finger placement, or why experienced drivers can navigate familiar routes on "autopilot."

The transition from System 2 to System 1 control is not always smooth. Sometimes, we develop bad habits, ingrained patterns of behavior that are driven by System 1 but are not optimal. For example, a golfer might develop a flawed swing that feels natural but consistently produces poor results. Breaking these bad habits requires bringing System 2 back into the picture, consciously analyzing the flawed behavior and retraining the muscle memory. This can be a challenging and frustrating process, as it involves overriding ingrained patterns and creating new neural pathways.

The concept of dual-process thinking has profound implications for understanding human behavior in a wide range of contexts, from consumer choices to political preferences to interpersonal relationships. Marketers, for example, often appeal to System 1 by using emotional appeals, catchy jingles, and celebrity endorsements to create positive associations with their products. Politicians often use similar tactics, crafting messages that resonate with voters' emotions and intuitions rather than relying solely on logical arguments.

In interpersonal relationships, System 1 plays a crucial role in forming initial impressions and shaping our interactions with others. We often make snap judgments about people based on limited information, and these judgments can be difficult to change, even in the face of contradictory evidence. This is why first impressions are so important, and why it can be so difficult to overcome negative stereotypes. Understanding the influence of System 1 can help us to be more mindful of our own biases and to make more conscious efforts to be fair and open-minded in our interactions with others.

The ability to effectively manage the interplay between System 1 and System 2 is a hallmark of skilled decision-making. This doesn't mean suppressing intuition altogether; it means learning to use it wisely, recognizing when it's likely to be helpful and when it's likely to lead us astray. A skilled decision-maker knows how to balance intuition with careful analysis, leveraging the strengths of both systems. They are also aware of their own cognitive limitations and take steps to mitigate the influence of biases.

For example, when making a major financial decision, a skilled decision-maker might start by gathering data and analyzing the different options, engaging System 2. However, they might also pay attention to their gut feelings, recognizing that their intuition might be picking up on subtle cues that are not immediately apparent in the data. They might also seek out the opinions of trusted advisors, recognizing that different perspectives can help to counteract their own biases. This ability to integrate different sources of information, both rational and emotional, is crucial for making sound judgments.

Cultivating self-awareness is a key component of improving the interplay between System 1 and System 2. By becoming more aware of our own thought processes, we can learn to recognize when we are relying on intuition and when we are engaging in deliberate reasoning. This self-awareness can help us to identify potential biases and to make more conscious efforts to correct for them. Practices like mindfulness meditation can be helpful in cultivating this self-awareness, as they train us to observe our thoughts and feelings without judgment.

Another important strategy is to create environments that support rational decision-making. This might involve minimizing distractions, reducing stress, and ensuring that we have adequate time to make important decisions. When we are under pressure or mentally fatigued, we are more likely to rely on System 1, making us more susceptible to biases. By creating a calm and focused environment, we can give System 2 the space it needs to operate effectively.

It is also important to remember that there is a balance to be had between the two systems, to prevent the overthinking that can lead to paralysis by analysis, in which a decision is never made due to over-analyzing the available information. This means that we spend more time and energy on a problem than it is worth, and are also less likely to be right than if we made a simpler decision.

The distinction between System 1 and System 2 is not always clear-cut. There are many shades of gray, and the two systems often interact in complex and subtle ways. However, understanding the basic principles of dual-process thinking provides a valuable framework for understanding how we make decisions, why we sometimes make errors, and how we can improve our decision-making skills. It's a reminder that we are not purely rational beings, but rather a blend of intuition and reason, emotion and logic. By embracing this complexity, we can learn to harness the power of both systems and make choices that are more aligned with our goals and values. This framework shows that we are often acting on auto-pilot.

We often think of emotions as the antithesis of reason, the unruly forces that cloud our judgment and lead us astray. The ideal decision-maker, in this view, is a cool, detached individual, devoid of sentiment, who carefully weighs the evidence and arrives at a purely logical conclusion. But this image is not only unrealistic; it's fundamentally flawed. Emotions are not simply noise in the system; they are integral to the decision-making process, providing valuable information, shaping our preferences, and guiding us toward choices that align with our needs and goals.

The relationship between emotion and decision-making is far more complex and nuanced than the traditional dichotomy suggests. Emotions are not simply irrational impulses that we need to suppress; they are sophisticated signaling systems that have evolved over millions of years to help us navigate a complex and often uncertain world. They provide us with rapid assessments of situations, alerting us to potential dangers and opportunities, and motivating us to take action. Without emotions, we wouldn't be able to make even the simplest decisions, as we'd be overwhelmed by the sheer volume of information and the infinite possibilities.

Imagine you're walking through a forest and suddenly hear a rustling in the bushes. Fear, a primal emotion, instantly kicks in, triggering a cascade of physiological changes – your heart rate increases, your muscles tense, your senses sharpen. This fear response is not a conscious decision; it's an automatic, instinctive reaction that prepares you to fight or flee. This immediate emotional response is crucial for survival, allowing you to react quickly to potential threats without having to consciously analyze the situation. This is an extreme example, but all emotions carry information.

Even seemingly "irrational" emotions can provide valuable insights. Consider the feeling of regret. Regret is a painful emotion that arises when we realize that we could have made a better choice. While it's unpleasant to experience, regret serves an important adaptive function. It signals to us that we've made a mistake, prompting us to learn from our errors and make better decisions in the future. Without the capacity for regret, we'd be doomed to repeat our mistakes, unable to adapt to changing circumstances.

The interplay between emotion and cognition is beautifully illustrated by the somatic marker hypothesis, a neurobiological theory proposed by Antonio Damasio. This hypothesis suggests that emotions, in the form of bodily states (somatic markers), are elicited during the deliberation of future consequences. These emotional signals, often subtle and unconscious, mark different options as advantageous or disadvantageous, guiding our decisions in the face of uncertainty. Damasio's research on patients with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), a brain region crucial for integrating emotions into decision-making, provided compelling evidence for this theory.

These patients, despite having intact intellectual abilities, were profoundly impaired in their ability to make real-life decisions. They could reason logically about the pros and cons of different options, but they struggled to make a commitment, often getting lost in endless analysis or making impulsive, disadvantageous choices. Damasio argued that this impairment was due to their inability to experience the emotional "gut feelings" that normally guide our decisions. They lacked the somatic markers that signal whether a particular option is likely to lead to a positive or negative outcome.

This research highlights the crucial role of emotions in providing us with a sense of "goodness" or "badness" about different options. We don't simply evaluate choices based on cold, hard facts; we also rely on our emotional responses to guide us. These emotional responses are not arbitrary; they are shaped by our past experiences, our values, and our goals. They provide us with a rapid, intuitive assessment of the potential consequences of our actions, helping us to navigate complex and uncertain situations.

Emotions can also influence our decisions in more subtle ways, even when we are not consciously aware of them. Psychologists distinguish between integral emotions, which are directly related to the decision at hand, and incidental emotions, which are unrelated to the decision but carried over from previous experiences. Integral emotions, such as the fear of losing money when making an investment, can be highly relevant to the decision and can provide valuable information about the potential risks and rewards. However, even incidental emotions can subtly influence our choices.

For example, studies have shown that people who are feeling sad tend to be more risk-averse, while people who are feeling angry tend to be more risk-seeking. This is because sadness often triggers a desire to change one's circumstances, leading to a preference for safer, more predictable options. Anger, on the other hand, is associated with a sense of control and optimism, making people more willing to take risks. These emotional influences can occur even when the source of the emotion is completely unrelated to the decision at hand.

Imagine you're deciding whether to accept a job offer, and you happen to be feeling down because you had a disagreement with a friend earlier in the day. Your sadness, even though it's unrelated to the job offer, might make you more inclined to reject the offer, as you might be subconsciously seeking to avoid any further potential disappointment. Conversely, if you're feeling elated after receiving some good news, you might be more likely to accept the offer, as your positive mood might make you more optimistic about the potential challenges.

The influence of emotions on decision-making is not always beneficial. Strong, unregulated emotions can impair judgment and lead to impulsive choices. When we're overwhelmed by fear, anger, or excitement, our ability to think rationally is compromised. We are more likely to focus on the immediate gratification and ignore the long-term consequences. This is why it's so important to develop emotional regulation skills, the ability to manage and modulate our emotions.

Emotional regulation doesn't mean suppressing our emotions; it means learning to experience them in a healthy and constructive way. It involves recognizing our emotional states, understanding their triggers, and developing strategies for managing them effectively. Mindfulness techniques, such as meditation and deep breathing exercises, can be helpful in cultivating emotional regulation skills. These practices help us to become more aware of our emotions as they arise, allowing us to observe them without judgment and to respond to them in a more thoughtful way.

Another important aspect of emotional regulation is cognitive reappraisal, the ability to change the way we think about a situation in order to alter our emotional response. For example, if you're feeling anxious about a presentation, you might reappraise the situation by focusing on the opportunity to share your knowledge and connect with your audience, rather than dwelling on the potential for failure. This shift in perspective can help to reduce your anxiety and improve your performance.

The impact of emotions on decision-making extends beyond individual choices; it also plays a significant role in social interactions and group dynamics. Emotions are contagious; we tend to mirror the emotional states of those around us. This emotional contagion can influence group decision-making, leading to collective biases and errors. For example, a group that is experiencing high levels of fear or anxiety might be more likely to make risk-averse decisions, even if the objective risks are low. Conversely, a group that is experiencing high levels of optimism and excitement might be more likely to make overly risky decisions.

Understanding the dynamics of emotional contagion can help us to create more effective teams and organizations. By fostering a culture of emotional intelligence, where individuals are aware of their own emotions and the emotions of others, we can create environments that support more rational and balanced decision-making. This involves encouraging open communication, empathy, and a willingness to challenge emotional biases. Emotions give color and weight to our choices.

The relationship between emotion and decision-making is a complex and fascinating area of research. Far from being irrational distractions, emotions are integral to the decision-making process, providing valuable information, shaping our preferences, and guiding us toward choices that align with our needs and goals. By understanding the influence of emotions, both positive and negative, we can learn to harness their power and make more informed, effective, and ultimately, more human decisions. We are emotional beings.