Kermanshah

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Land and Its First Peoples
• Chapter 2 Prehistoric Settlements in the Zagros Foothills
• Chapter 3 Kermanshah in the Age of the Medes
• Chapter 4 The Achaemenid Legacy in the Western Provinces
• Chapter 5 Alexander’s Conquest and the Hellenistic Aftermath
• Chapter 6 The Rise of the Parthian Empire and Local Autonomy
• Chapter 7 Under the Sasanian Shadow: Fire Temples and Royal Roads
• Chapter 8 The Arab Conquest and the Dawn of Islam
• Chapter 9 Kermanshah in the Early Islamic Caliphates
• Chapter 10 The Hadavand and Regional Tribal Confederacies
• Chapter 11 The Kakavand and the Lurs of the Plain
• Chapter 12 Seljuk Patronage and the Caravanserais
• Chapter 13 The Mongol Storm and the Ilkhanid Recovery
• Chapter 14 Timurid Turmoil and the Stray Court
• Chapter 15 The Rise of the Safavids and the Shi’a Transformation
• Chapter 16 Ottoman–Safavid Rivalry on the Frontier
• Chapter 17 Nader Shah and the Afsharid Interlude
• Chapter 18 The Zand Contest and the Road to Qajar Rule
• Chapter 19 Qajar Kermanshah: Consolidation and Rebellion
• Chapter 20 The Constitutional Revolution in the Western Cities
• Chapter 21 World War I and the Famine Years
• Chapter 22 Pahlavi Modernization and the Oil Frontier
• Chapter 23 The Iran–Iraq War and the Borderland Sacrifice
• Chapter 24 Reconstruction and the Contemporary City
• Chapter 25 Kermanshah in the Twenty-First Century

Kermanshah is a name that carries the weight of millennia. Nestled in the western reaches of Iran, at the crossroads where the Zagros Mountains descend into the Mesopotamian plain, this city and its surrounding region have witnessed the passage of empires, the birth and death of civilizations, and the quiet endurance of peoples who have called these foothills home since before recorded history began. Yet despite its extraordinary depth of heritage, Kermanshah has rarely received the sustained, comprehensive historical treatment afforded to Isfahan, Shiraz, or Tehran. This book aims to fill that void. It is a history of Kermanshah in the fullest sense of the word — not merely a chronicle of rulers and battles, but an account of the land itself, the communities that have inhabited it, and the forces, both local and global, that have shaped its identity across the ages.

The story of Kermanshah is, in many ways, the story of a frontier. Situated along the ancient routes linking the Iranian plateau to the lands of modern-day Iraq, the region has always occupied a liminal space, culturally and politically. It was here that the great powers of the ancient Near East met, clashed, and mingled. The Medes consolidated their authority over these highlands; the Achaemenids incorporated them into the largest empire the world had yet seen; Alexander's armies swept through on their way to Persepolis and beyond. Later, the Parthians and Sasanians made the region a bulwark of Iranian civilization against Roman and then Arab expansion. Each of these epochs left its mark on the landscape and on the collective memory of the people, and this book traces those layers of influence with care, drawing on archaeological evidence, textual sources, and the living traditions of the region.

But Kermanshah is not only a stage upon which great empires performed their dramas. It is also a place with its own internal history, one shaped by tribal confederacies, local dynasties, and the everyday lives of farmers, traders, artisans, and scholars. The Hadavand and the Kakavand, the Lurs of the plain, the merchants who animated the caravanserais along the Silk Road, the clerics and intellectuals who debated the future of the nation during the Constitutional Revolution — all of these actors deserve a place in the narrative. This book seeks to give them that place, weaving together the grand sweep of political history with the textures of social and cultural life that give a region its distinctive character.

The twentieth and twenty-first centuries brought new and often devastating challenges to Kermanshah. The city found itself on the front line of the Iran–Iraq War, subjected to bombardment and siege, its villages scarred by conflict and its population displaced. The famine years of the First World War, the upheavals of the Constitutional era, and the transformations of the Pahlavi period each left deep imprints on the social fabric. In the decades since the 1980s, Kermanshah has undergone significant reconstruction and modernization, even as it grapples with the legacies of war, economic hardship, and the pressures of a rapidly changing nation. The final chapters of this book bring the story into the present, offering a portrait of a city that continues to evolve while remaining profoundly connected to its past.

This volume is intended for a broad readership. Scholars will find here a synthesis of current research and a framework for understanding Kermanshah's place within Iranian and Near Eastern history. General readers with an interest in Iran, in the Middle East, or in the ways that local histories illuminate global processes will, it is hoped, find the narrative accessible and engaging. No specialized knowledge is assumed; where debates among historians exist, they are presented clearly and fairly, allowing the reader to appreciate the complexity of the evidence without becoming lost in academic controversy.

Above all, this book is an invitation to see Kermanshah anew. Too often, the history of western Iran has been told from the perspective of the capital, as though the provinces were mere peripheries awaiting the center's attention. The chapters that follow challenge that assumption. They argue that Kermanshah was not a passive recipient of history but an active participant, a region whose geography, peoples, and traditions shaped the course of events in ways that reverberated far beyond the Zagros. To understand Iran fully, one must understand Kermanshah. And to understand Kermanshah, one must listen to the voices of its land, its monuments, and its people, across the full span of their long and remarkable story.

The western edge of Iran rises like a folded carpet where the Zagros Mountains thrust upward from the ancient collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates. Over millions of years, seismic forces crumpled sedimentary layers, creating the rugged ridges and deep valleys that define Kermanshah’s topography today. These movements left behind a mosaic of limestone, dolomite, and marl, interspersed with occasional basaltic outcrops that hint at volcanic episodes long silenced by erosion. The resulting landscape is a study in contrast: steep cliffs that catch the winter snow, gentle alluvial fans that cradle spring meltwater, and expansive plains that open toward the Mesopotamian lowlands. This geological framework not only shapes the scenery but also dictates where water collects, where soils accumulate, and where early human groups could find shelter and sustenance.

Climate in the Kermanshah region has swung between moist and arid phases throughout the Pleistocene, responding to global glacial cycles and shifts in the Mediterranean storm track. During colder periods, the Zagros received heavier snowfall, feeding perennial rivers that carved deep gorges such as the Gamasab and the Qarah Su. Warmer interglacials brought drier summers, prompting vegetation to retreat to higher elevations and leaving behind loess deposits that later enriched the soil. These oscillations created a patchwork of refuges where flora and fauna could persist, offering stable niches for the first hominins who ventured into the mountains. The alternating wet and dry phases also left behind a rich archive of pollen, charcoal, and fossilized pollen grains locked in lake sediments, providing modern scholars with a detailed chronicle of environmental change.

The rivers that drain the western Zagros are lifelines that have guided both wildlife and people for millennia. The Karkheh, originating in the highlands near Kuh-e Sefid, flows westward before turning south to join the Tigris system, while the smaller Dinvar and Sirwan rivers carve their own paths through the foothills. These waterways transport eroded sediments downstream, depositing fertile silts on the marginal plains where early agricultural experiments would later take root. In the uplands, springs emerge from fissures in the carbonate rock, feeding temporary streams that sustain oak and pistachio woodlands on north‑facing slopes. The presence of reliable water sources made the region attractive to mobile bands of hunters and gatherers, who could follow game along the river corridors while exploiting the diverse ecosystems on either side.

Vegetation in the Kermanshah zone reflects its position at the intersection of the Irano‑Turanian and Mediterranean phytogeographic realms. Oak forests dominated by Quercus brantii and Quercus libani cloak the higher elevations, providing acorns that were a valuable food source for both fauna and early humans. Lower slopes support open woodlands of pistachio, almond, and wild fig, interspersed with shrubby steppe species such as Artemisia and Acantholimon. Grasslands flourish in the rain‑shadow valleys, where hardy grasses like Stipa and Poa tolerate seasonal drought. This botanical diversity created a mosaic of habitats that could support large herbivores such as Persian gazelle, wild goat, and red deer, as well as smaller prey like hare and fox, all of which would have been attractive to early foragers.

Faunal remains recovered from Paleolithic sites in the Zagros reveal a rich assemblage of megafauna that once roamed the region. Bones of aurochs, hemione, and even the occasional rhinoceros have been identified in layers dating to the Middle Pleistocene, indicating that the environment could sustain large grazers during wetter phases. Carnivores such as cave hyena, brown bear, and leopard left their marks in the fossil record, suggesting a balanced predator‑prey dynamic. Smaller mammals, including hedgehogs, shrews, and various rodent species, thrived in the burrow‑friendly loess soils. Avian life was equally varied, with raptors nesting on cliff faces and waterfowl utilizing seasonal wetlands. This biological wealth provided a robust resource base for any human population capable of exploiting it.

The earliest evidence of hominin activity in the Kermanshah area comes from stone tools recovered from river terraces and cave mouths, dating back to the Lower Paleolithic. These artifacts, typically large flakes and choppers made from locally available quartzite and limestone, suggest that Homo erectus or a close relative ventured into the Zagros foothills in search of game and raw material. The tools display a simple technology focused on core reduction, reflecting a subsistence strategy based on scavenging and opportunistic hunting. Although the archaeological record is sparse, the presence of these implements indicates that early humans were already capable of navigating the rugged terrain and adapting to its seasonal variations.

Moving forward in time, the Middle Paleolithic layers reveal a shift toward more refined flake‑based assemblages, often associated with Mousterian traditions. Points and scrapers crafted from flint and chert appear in greater numbers, indicating increased specialization in hide processing and woodworking. Some sites show evidence of repeated occupation, with hearth remnants suggesting controlled use of fire for warmth, cooking, and protection. The consistent reuse of certain caves and rock shelters points to an emerging understanding of landscape geography, where specific locations offered advantageous microclimates, protection from predators, and proximity to water sources. These behavioral patterns hint at growing cognitive complexity among the inhabitants.

The Upper Paleolithic in the Kermanshah zone brings further diversification of toolkits, including bladelet production, bone points, and personal ornaments such as perforated shells and stained ochre. These innovations coincide with the arrival of anatomically modern Homo sapiens in the Near East, whose spread into the Zagros likely followed the same migratory routes used by earlier groups. The appearance of symbolic artifacts suggests not only technological advancement but also the emergence of social rituals, perhaps linked to hunting success or seasonal gatherings. The presence of imported marine shells, traceable to the Persian Gulf, hints at nascent exchange networks that connected mountain dwellers with lowland communities.

Environmental proxies from lake cores and speleothems indicate that the Last Glacial Maximum, around 26,000 to 19,000 years ago, brought cooler temperatures and increased precipitation to the Zagros, expanding the extent of woodland and pushing the tree line lower. This period likely offered abundant resources for human groups, supporting larger band sizes and longer-term occupation of certain shelters. As the climate ameliorated after the glacial retreat, the region experienced a gradual shift toward the conditions that would later favor the experimentation with plant cultivation and animal husbandry seen in subsequent chapters.

While the Lower and Middle Paleolithic record is dominated by lithic scatters, the Upper Paleolithic introduces more complex site structures, including possible windbreaks constructed from branches and animal hides. Some rock shelters display concentric arrangements of stones that may have demarcated activity zones, such as knapping areas, food processing spots, and sleeping areas. The spatial organization of these sites reflects an increasing degree of site‑specific knowledge, where groups returned repeatedly to locations that offered favorable micro‑environments, such as south‑facing caves that captured winter sun or high‑altitude shelters that remained cool during summer heat.

The transition from foraging to food production did not happen abruptly; rather, it unfolded over millennia as peoples accumulated knowledge of the local flora and fauna. In the Kermanshah region, wild cereals such as barley and einkorn wheat grew abundantly on the foothill slopes, their seeds easily harvested with simple sickles made of flint. Legumes like wild lentils and peas provided protein-rich supplements, while nut‑bearing trees offered seasonal fats. The ability to store surplus food in pits lined with stone or clay would have conferred a decisive advantage during lean seasons of scarce periods, encouraging experimentation with cultivation techniques.

Animal domestication also found fertile ground in the Zagros foothills. The native wild goat (Capra aegagrus) and the wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) inhabited the steep cliffs, making them prime candidates for early herding attempts. Evidence from later Neolithic sites suggests that these species were the first to be brought under human control, providing not only meat but also milk, wool, and leather. The gradual shift from hunting wild ungulates to managing domestic herds would have altered social structures, encouraging sedentism and the development of more complex community organization.

The rich tapestry of geological, climatic, botanical, and zoological factors that shaped Kermanshah’s early landscape laid the foundation for every subsequent cultural development. The region’s position as a ecological crossroads meant that it repeatedly attracted waves of human groups, each leaving a subtle imprint upon the land before moving on or settling in. These early peoples were not isolated actors; they participated in broader networks of movement and exchange that stretched from the Levantine corridor to the Iranian plateau, bringing with them ideas, technologies, and genetic material that would later meld into the distinct cultural identities seen in later periods.

Understanding the deep past of Kermanshah therefore begins with recognizing the land itself—not merely as a stage but as an active participant in human history. The mountains’ uplift, the rivers’ carving, the climate’s oscillation, and the biodiversity’s richness collectively created a set of opportunities and constraints that guided the decisions of those who first walked its slopes. Their stone tools, hearths, and symbolic ornaments are the faint echoes of a long dialogue between people and place, a dialogue that continues to reverberate through the millennia and sets the scene for the settled communities explored in the following chapter.