A History of Ukraine

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Ancient Inhabitants of the Ukrainian Steppe
• Chapter 2 The Rise of Kyivan Rus'
• Chapter 3 The Golden Age of Kyiv and the Christianization of Rus'
• Chapter 4 The Fragmentation and Decline of Kyivan Rus'
• Chapter 5 The Mongol Invasion and Its Aftermath
• Chapter 6 Under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
• Chapter 7 The Emergence of the Cossacks and the Zaporozhian Sich
• Chapter 8 The Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Cossack Hetmanate
• Chapter 9 The Division of Ukraine and Russian Imperial Rule
• Chapter 10 The National Revival in the 19th Century
• Chapter 11 Ukraine in the Tumult of the First World War
• Chapter 12 The Ukrainian War of Independence and the Quest for Statehood (1917-1921)
• Chapter 13 The Establishment of Soviet Ukraine and the Holodomor
• Chapter 14 Between the World Wars: Industrialization and Repression
• Chapter 15 Ukraine in the Second World War
• Chapter 16 Post-War Reconstruction and Life in Soviet Ukraine
• Chapter 17 The Chernobyl Disaster and Its Long Shadow
• Chapter 18 The Path to Independence: The Final Years of the USSR
• Chapter 19 Building a Nation: Independent Ukraine in the 1990s
• Chapter 20 The Orange Revolution and the Struggle for Democracy
• Chapter 21 The Euromaidan Revolution and the Revolution of Dignity
• Chapter 22 The Annexation of Crimea and the War in Donbas
• Chapter 23 The Full-Scale Invasion of 2022
• Chapter 24 The Resilience of a Nation: Wartime Society and Culture
• Chapter 25 Ukraine's Place in the 21st-Century World

To understand the history of Ukraine is to understand a history of intersections. Geographically, it is a vast plain, the second-largest country in Europe, a natural corridor between the forests of the north, the steppes of the east, the mountains to the west, and the sea to the south. For millennia, this land has been a crossroads, a meeting point of empires, cultures, and peoples. Its fertile black soil, the famous chornozem, has made it a coveted prize, the "breadbasket of Europe," capable of feeding hundreds of millions. Through its heart flows the mighty Dnipro River, a vital artery of trade and transport that has shaped the destiny of those who live along its banks. This geography has been both a blessing and a curse, fostering a rich and diverse cultural tapestry while also making the land a perennial battleground for competing powers.

The very name "Ukraine" is a subject of historical debate. For centuries, it was commonly interpreted as "borderland," a term reflecting its position on the periphery of larger empires. This interpretation, however, has been challenged by many Ukrainian scholars who argue for an older meaning of "region" or "country." The distinction is more than semantic; it speaks to a long and arduous struggle for self-definition, a journey from being perceived as the edge of someone else's world to being recognized as a sovereign nation at the center of its own. This book will trace that journey, from the earliest human settlements to the present day, exploring the complex and often turbulent history of a resilient people and their enduring quest for independence.

The story of Ukraine begins in the deep past, with evidence of human habitation stretching back tens of thousands of years. The fertile plains were home to some of Europe's earliest agricultural societies, such as the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, which flourished in the Neolithic era. In antiquity, the Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin, roamed the steppes, leaving behind a legacy of intricate gold work and a reputation as formidable warriors. Greek colonists established thriving city-states along the Black Sea coast, creating a vibrant exchange of goods and ideas that connected the region to the wider Mediterranean world. These early inhabitants, and the many who followed, each left their mark on the land and its people, contributing to the rich cultural mosaic that would come to define Ukraine.

The medieval period witnessed the rise of Kyivan Rus', a powerful and sprawling state that emerged in the 9th century and became a center of East Slavic culture. With its capital in Kyiv, a bustling metropolis on the Dnipro, Kyivan Rus' reached its zenith in the 10th and 11th centuries, a golden age marked by the adoption of Orthodox Christianity and the flourishing of art, architecture, and law. This period laid the foundations for a distinct cultural and political identity, a legacy that would be fiercely contested by its neighbors in the centuries to come. The fragmentation of Kyivan Rus' in the 12th century, followed by the devastating Mongol invasion in the 13th, plunged the region into a long period of foreign domination.

For the next several centuries, Ukrainian lands were divided and ruled by a succession of powerful neighbors, including the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Poland, and the Ottoman Empire. This era of foreign rule was not one of passive submission. It was a time of constant struggle and adaptation, of cultural preservation and periodic rebellion. It was also during this period that a new and uniquely Ukrainian phenomenon emerged: the Cossacks. Originally free men and adventurers who settled the wild southern steppes, the Cossacks evolved into a formidable military society with a fiercely independent spirit. They defended the frontiers, launched daring raids against the Ottoman Turks, and, most importantly, became the standard-bearers of a nascent Ukrainian identity.

The 17th century was a turning point in Ukrainian history. The Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648, a massive Cossack-led rebellion against Polish rule, resulted in the creation of a semi-autonomous Cossack state, the Hetmanate. This brief but brilliant period of self-governance was a testament to the enduring desire for independence. However, caught between the competing ambitions of Poland, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, the Hetmanate was ultimately unable to sustain its sovereignty. The controversial Pereiaslav Agreement of 1654, an alliance with the Tsardom of Russia, set in motion a process that would lead to the gradual absorption of Ukrainian lands into the expanding Russian Empire.

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the further consolidation of Russian rule over most of Ukraine, with the remaining western territories falling under the control of the Austrian Empire. This period of imperial domination was marked by policies of Russification and the suppression of Ukrainian language and culture. Yet, it was also during this time that a powerful national revival began to take root. Inspired by the romantic nationalism sweeping across Europe, Ukrainian intellectuals, writers, and artists sought to rediscover and celebrate their unique heritage. Figures like Taras Shevchenko, Ukraine's national poet, gave voice to the aspirations of a people long denied their own history and identity.

The tumult of the early 20th century provided a brief window of opportunity for Ukrainian independence. The collapse of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires during the First World War ignited a fierce struggle for statehood. The Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed in 1917, a bold but ultimately short-lived attempt to establish a sovereign nation. The ensuing Ukrainian War of Independence was a chaotic and brutal affair, with Ukrainian forces battling the Bolsheviks, the White Russians, and Poland for control of their homeland. By 1921, the dream of an independent Ukraine was once again extinguished, with the majority of its territory incorporated into the newly formed Soviet Union.

The Soviet era was a period of profound contradictions for Ukraine. On the one hand, it saw the formal establishment of a Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, with its own borders and institutions. There were periods of cultural promotion, known as "Ukrainianization," and significant strides in industrialization and education. On the other hand, it was a time of unimaginable tragedy and repression. The Holodomor, the man-made famine of 1932-33, claimed the lives of millions of Ukrainians, a catastrophe that many consider an act of genocide. The Great Terror of the late 1930s saw the execution or imprisonment of countless Ukrainian intellectuals, artists, and political figures. During the Second World War, Ukraine was a major battleground, suffering immense devastation and loss of life under both Nazi and Soviet occupation.

In the post-war years, Ukraine became an integral part of the Soviet empire, a major industrial and agricultural hub. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, a catastrophic event with long-lasting consequences, exposed the deep flaws and secrecy of the Soviet system and galvanized a growing environmental and political awakening. As the Soviet Union began to crumble in the late 1980s, the long-suppressed desire for independence once again surged to the forefront. On August 24, 1991, following a failed coup in Moscow, the Ukrainian parliament declared the country's independence, a move overwhelmingly confirmed by a popular referendum later that year.

The decades since independence have been a period of profound transformation and challenge. Ukraine has navigated the difficult transition from a command economy to a market-based system, from a one-party state to a pluralistic democracy. This path has not been smooth. It has been marked by political infighting, economic instability, and the persistent challenge of corruption. Yet, it has also been defined by the unwavering determination of the Ukrainian people to forge their own destiny. The Orange Revolution of 2004, a series of mass protests against a fraudulent presidential election, demonstrated the power of civil society and the refusal to accept a return to authoritarianism.

The Euromaidan Revolution of 2014, also known as the Revolution of Dignity, was another pivotal moment in Ukraine's post-Soviet history. Sparked by the government's decision to abandon a planned association agreement with the European Union in favor of closer ties with Russia, the protests grew into a nationwide movement demanding an end to corruption and a commitment to a European future. The violent suppression of these protests ultimately led to the ousting of the pro-Russian president. Russia's response was swift and aggressive: the annexation of Crimea and the fomenting of a war in the eastern Donbas region. This marked the beginning of a protracted conflict that would claim thousands of lives and displace millions.

On February 24, 2022, the world watched in horror as Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, an unprovoked act of aggression that shattered the post-Cold War peace in Europe. The ensuing war has been a testament to the extraordinary resilience and courage of the Ukrainian people. Facing a far larger and more powerful adversary, they have defended their homeland with a tenacity that has inspired the world. The war has also brought into sharp focus the central theme of this book: Ukraine's long and arduous struggle for self-determination. It is a struggle that has been waged over centuries, against a succession of powerful empires and ideologies. It is a struggle for the right to exist as a sovereign nation, to choose its own path, and to determine its own future.

This book is a history of that struggle. It is a story of triumphs and tragedies, of heroes and villains, of cultural flourishing and devastating loss. It is a story that is still unfolding, with the final chapters yet to be written. But it is a story that deserves to be told, for in the history of Ukraine, we find not only the story of a single nation, but a reflection of the universal human aspiration for freedom, dignity, and self-determination.

The vast, fertile plains that constitute modern Ukraine have served as a corridor for countless peoples for millennia. This expanse of grassland, known as the Pontic--Caspian steppe, stretches from the northern shores of the Black Sea eastward towards Central Asia. Its story begins in the deep past, with archaeological evidence pointing to human habitation dating as far back as 1 million years ago. These early humans, likely Neanderthals, lived in primitive herds and sought shelter in the region's numerous caves, leaving behind the earliest traces of a human presence on this ancient landscape.

Following the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age, the climate warmed, and the population of hunter-gatherers on the steppe grew. This period, known as the Mesolithic, saw the development of more sophisticated tools and hunting techniques. As the environment stabilized, a pivotal shift occurred with the dawn of the Neolithic era, characterized by the gradual adoption of agriculture and animal husbandry. This transition was not instantaneous but developed over thousands of years, influenced by innovations arriving from the Middle East via the Balkan Peninsula.

One of the earliest farming cultures to leave its mark on Ukrainian lands was the Linear Pottery culture, which flourished in the late 6th to mid-5th millennium BC. These early agriculturalists settled in western Ukraine, cultivating grains and raising livestock. Their settlements often featured semi-pit dwellings and they produced distinctive globular pottery decorated with incised linear patterns. The Linear Pottery culture represents one of the first major waves of agriculturalists to spread across Europe, bringing with them a new way of life that would fundamentally transform the continent.

Succeeding the initial Neolithic farmers were a series of cultures that further developed agriculture and societal complexity. The Dnieper-Donets culture, for instance, occupied central and western Ukraine around the 5th millennium BC and represented a transition towards more established pastoral and agricultural communities. This era laid the groundwork for one of the most remarkable prehistoric cultures in Europe: the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture. Flourishing from approximately 4800 to 3000 BC, the Trypillians were renowned for their massive settlements, some of which are considered the first "proto-cities" in Europe, housing tens of thousands of inhabitants. They were skilled farmers and artisans, producing intricately decorated pottery with swirling patterns and anthropomorphic figurines. The reasons for the decline of the Trypillian culture remain a subject of debate among archaeologists, but their legacy is a testament to the sophisticated societies that thrived on the Ukrainian steppe long before the rise of the classical civilizations.

The transition from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age brought significant changes to the Pontic-Caspian steppe, most notably with the emergence of the Yamnaya culture around 3300 BC. Primarily nomadic pastoralists, the Yamnaya people are believed by many scholars to be the original speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, the ancestor of most European and many Asian languages. Their culture is characterized by its distinctive burial practice of interring their dead in pit graves under large earthen mounds known as kurgans. These burials, often containing ochre and the remains of wagons, suggest a mobile society with a strong emphasis on animal husbandry. The Yamnaya and subsequent steppe cultures are considered to have played a crucial role in the migrations that spread Indo-European languages and culture across Eurasia.

Following the Yamnaya, other Bronze Age cultures like the Catacomb and Srubna cultures continued the pastoralist traditions of the steppe. This long period of nomadic and semi-nomadic life set the stage for the first historically documented peoples to dominate the region. Around the 9th century BC, the Cimmerians, a nomadic people of uncertain linguistic affiliation, appeared in the historical record, mentioned in Assyrian texts and later by Greek authors like Herodotus. They were known for their horsemanship and military prowess, but their dominance was relatively short-lived.

By the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the Cimmerians were displaced by a new and powerful wave of nomadic warriors from the east: the Scythians. An Iranian-speaking people, the Scythians established a powerful nomadic empire that controlled the Pontic steppe for several centuries. They were masters of mounted warfare, their armies of horse-archers striking fear into the settled civilizations of the Near East and the Mediterranean. Scythian society was hierarchical, ruled by a wealthy aristocracy whose elaborate burials in kurgans have yielded a treasure trove of archaeological finds.

The Scythians are perhaps most famous for their exquisite goldwork, a testament to their wealth and artistic skill. Their art is characterized by a distinctive "animal style," featuring dynamic depictions of stags, panthers, griffins, and other real and fantastical creatures. This artwork adorned everything from weapons and horse trappings to clothing and jewelry. The Scythians' wealth was derived in large part from their control of the lucrative trade routes that crossed the steppe, connecting the Greek world with the agricultural and raw material resources of the interior.

While the Scythians dominated the steppes, another significant development was taking place along the northern coast of the Black Sea. Beginning in the 7th century BC, Greek city-states, primarily Miletus, began establishing colonies in the region. Cities like Olbia, Tyras, and Panticapaeum became thriving centers of trade and culture, creating a vibrant interface between the Hellenic world and the so-called "barbarian" peoples of the interior. These colonies exported grain, fish, and other resources from the fertile hinterlands to the wider Mediterranean world, while importing Greek goods like wine, olive oil, and pottery. This interaction led to a fascinating cultural fusion, with Greek and Scythian influences evident in the art and material culture of the region.

The Scythian dominance of the Pontic steppe began to wane in the 3rd century BC with the arrival of another Iranian-speaking nomadic confederation from the east, the Sarmatians. Comprised of various tribes such as the Roxolani, Iazyges, and Alans, the Sarmatians gradually conquered the Scythians and established themselves as the new rulers of the steppe. Like their predecessors, the Sarmatians were skilled horsemen and warriors, but they differed in several respects. Notably, Sarmatian women appeared to have played a more prominent role in society, with archaeological evidence suggesting the existence of female warriors, which may have inspired the Greek legends of the Amazons.

The Sarmatians controlled the Ukrainian steppe for several centuries, frequently clashing with the Roman Empire along its Danube frontier. Their society was also characterized by a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, and their religion included the worship of a fire god, to whom they sacrificed horses. Sarmatian art, while sharing some similarities with Scythian traditions, also developed its own unique characteristics. Over time, many Sarmatians became more sedentary, assimilating into the local cultures of the forest-steppe region and the Hellenic colonies along the Black Sea coast.

The long era of Iranian-speaking nomadic dominance on the steppe came to an end with the tumultuous events of the Migration Period. In the 3rd century AD, the Goths, a Germanic people, moved into the region, breaking the power of the Sarmatians. They established the Chernyakhov culture, a more settled, agricultural society that encompassed a diverse mix of peoples. The Gothic kingdom, however, was short-lived. In the late 4th century AD, the Huns, a nomadic people from Central Asia, swept into Europe, overwhelming the Goths and triggering a massive wave of migrations that would ultimately contribute to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The arrival of the Huns marked the end of antiquity on the Ukrainian steppe and ushered in a new and complex period that would see the eventual rise of the Slavic peoples who would come to form the nucleus of medieval Kyivan Rus'.