Thirty-Six Stories

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 Andhra Pradesh
• Chapter 2 Arunachal Pradesh
• Chapter 3 Assam
• Chapter 4 Bihar
• Chapter 5 Chhattisgarh
• Chapter 6 Goa
• Chapter 7 Gujarat
• Chapter 8 Haryana
• Chapter 9 Himachal Pradesh
• Chapter 10 Jharkhand
• Chapter 11 Karnataka
• Chapter 12 Kerala
• Chapter 13 Madhya Pradesh
• Chapter 14 Maharashtra
• Chapter 15 Manipur
• Chapter 16 Meghalaya
• Chapter 17 Mizoram
• Chapter 18 Nagaland
• Chapter 19 Odisha
• Chapter 20 Punjab
• Chapter 21 Rajasthan
• Chapter 22 Sikkim
• Chapter 23 Tamil Nadu
• Chapter 24 Telangana
• Chapter 25 Tripura
• Chapter 26 Uttar Pradesh
• Chapter 27 Uttarakhand
• Chapter 28 West Bengal
• Chapter 29 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Chapter 30 Chandigarh
• Chapter 31 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
• Chapter 32 Delhi
• Chapter 33 Jammu and Kashmir
• Chapter 34 Ladakh
• Chapter 35 Lakshadweep
• Chapter 36 Puducherry
• Afterword

To tell the story of India is to tell many stories. It is an undertaking that is, by its very nature, an exercise in both ambition and futility. A land of over a billion people, thousands of years of recorded history, and a geographic and cultural diversity that rivals a continent, India defies any single, linear narrative. The very idea of "India" is a paradox; a modern nation-state forged from a sprawling subcontinent that, for much of its history, was a mosaic of distinct kingdoms, empires, and cultures, each with its own powerful identity. To speak of its history as one unified stream is to miss the richness of the countless tributaries that have fed into it. This book, therefore, takes a different approach. It seeks to understand the whole by examining its parts. It is a journey through the histories of the thirty-six distinct administrative units that make up the modern Republic of India: its twenty-eight states and eight union territories.

Each chapter that follows is a story unto itself, a chronicle of a specific corner of the subcontinent. Some of these stories are epic in scale, sweeping across millennia and featuring empires that shaped the course of world history. Others are more intimate, tales of remote valleys, coastal communities, or strategic islands whose destinies were shaped by forces both near and far. Together, they form a complex and often contradictory tapestry, revealing a history that is not monolithic but multifaceted, not a single narrative but a vibrant, and at times cacophonous, chorus of many. The aim is not to present an encyclopedic catalogue of facts and dates for each region, but rather to capture the spirit of its unique historical journey—the key events, the influential figures, and the cultural currents that have shaped its identity.

Before we embark on this journey, it is essential to understand the framework upon which modern India is built—the very concepts of a "state" and a "union territory." On the surface, the distinction seems simple, but it is rooted in the complex process of nation-building that followed independence in 1947. The 28 states are the primary building blocks of the Indian federation. Each has its own elected government, led by a Chief Minister, and possesses a significant degree of autonomy to manage its own affairs, from law and order to healthcare and education. The relationship between the states and the central government is federal, meaning power is shared, albeit with a famously strong central authority. The Governor of a state acts as the ceremonial head, a representative of the President of India.

The eight union territories, on the other hand, are administered, for the most part, directly by the national government in New Delhi. These territories were generally created for specific reasons that made statehood impractical or undesirable at the time of their formation. Some, like the Andaman and Nicobar Islands or Ladakh, were deemed to be of immense strategic importance. Others, such as Chandigarh, were created to serve as a shared capital and required neutral administrative control. Still others, like Puducherry or Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, possessed a distinct cultural and historical legacy—in these cases, French and Portuguese colonial heritage, respectively—that set them apart from their surrounding states. An administrator, usually with the title of Lieutenant Governor, is appointed by the President to manage these territories. However, the lines can blur. A special constitutional provision has granted two union territories, Delhi and Puducherry, and more recently Jammu and Kashmir, their own elected legislatures and a council of ministers, giving them a form of partial statehood. This flexible, and at times complicated, system reflects India's pragmatic approach to governing its immense diversity.

The map of these thirty-six entities is not an ancient and unchanging one. In fact, the internal borders of India are a relatively recent and fluid creation, a political cartography drawn and redrawn to reflect linguistic, cultural, and administrative realities. When the British departed in 1947, they left behind a patchwork of directly ruled provinces and over 500 nominally autonomous princely states. The initial task of forging a nation from this fragmented inheritance was monumental. In the first few years after independence, the princely states were integrated, some merging into existing provinces, others combining to form new states. The Constitution of 1950 initially classified these units into four categories—Part A, B, C, and D states—a complex and temporary arrangement.

A more profound and lasting reorganization, however, was yet to come. The demand for states to be formed on the basis of language had been growing for decades, with the first linguistic movement emerging in what is now Odisha as early as 1886. The idea was simple and powerful: people who shared a common language, and by extension a common culture and identity, should be governed within a single state. After years of popular agitation and debate, the central government appointed the States Reorganisation Commission in 1953. Its recommendations led to the landmark States Reorganisation Act of 1956. This was the most extensive change in state boundaries since independence. It dissolved the old A, B, and C classifications and redrew the map of India along linguistic lines, creating 14 states and 6 union territories. This act recognized language as a cornerstone of regional identity and sought to empower linguistic communities, a move that fundamentally reshaped India's federal structure.

But the map was not set in stone even then. The story of India's internal borders since 1956 has been one of continuous evolution. In 1960, the state of Bombay was divided into Gujarat and Maharashtra to satisfy the demands of Gujarati and Marathi speakers. The 1960s saw the creation of Nagaland and the reorganization of Punjab into Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh. In the decades that followed, new states were carved out to accommodate regional aspirations, such as Meghalaya, Manipur, and Tripura in the northeast, and later, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Uttarakhand in 2000. The most recent major changes occurred in 2014, with the creation of Telangana from Andhra Pradesh, and in 2019, when the state of Jammu and Kashmir was reorganized into two union territories: Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh. Furthermore, in 2020, the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli were merged into a single administrative unit. This constant redrawing of lines highlights a central theme of Indian history: the dynamic interplay between a powerful, unifying central authority and strong, persistent regional identities.

Running through the individual stories of these thirty-six regions are the great currents of subcontinent-wide history. The rise and fall of ancient empires like the Mauryas (c. 322–185 BCE) and the Guptas (c. 320–550 CE) left an indelible mark on the political and cultural landscape of the north. The spread of Buddhism and Jainism, followed by the deep-rooted establishment of Hinduism and the later arrival of Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism, created a spiritual and philosophical fabric of unparalleled complexity. The medieval period saw the emergence of powerful regional kingdoms and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (c. 1206–1526 CE), which brought new systems of administration and a Persian cultural influence. This was followed by the grandeur of the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE), a period of remarkable artistic and architectural achievement that unified vast swathes of the subcontinent under a single imperial authority.

The arrival of European traders, most notably the British East India Company, marked a pivotal turning point. What began as a commercial enterprise in the 17th century gradually transformed into a political one. Taking advantage of the declining Mughal power, the Company expanded its influence, culminating in direct British rule, or the "Raj," following the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The period of the British Raj (1858–1947) brought profound changes, introducing a centralized administration, a modern legal system, railways, and English education, while also leading to economic exploitation and a series of devastating famines. This era also sowed the seeds of a unified nationalist movement, a struggle for freedom that transcended regional and religious divides and ultimately led to independence in 1947. The joy of freedom, however, was tragically marred by the Partition, the division of British India into the independent nations of India and Pakistan, a violent sundering that created one of the largest refugee crises in human history.

In the chapters that follow, we will see how these grand historical forces played out on the ground, in the specific contexts of each state and union territory. We will explore the ancient civilizations of the Indus Valley in the west, the maritime trade of the southern coasts, the kingdoms of the Deccan plateau, the unique cultural histories of the Himalayan north and the vibrant societies of the northeast. We will delve into stories of resistance and assimilation, of conflict and cooperation, and of the enduring quest for identity that characterizes so much of India's past.

This book is titled 'Thirty-Six Stories' because that is what it contains. It does not pretend to be a single, all-encompassing history of India. Instead, it offers a collection of narratives, each contributing a vital piece to the larger puzzle. By journeying through the unique past of Andhra Pradesh, the remote landscapes of Arunachal Pradesh, the strategic crossroads of Delhi, and the island territories of Lakshadweep, we can begin to appreciate the true depth and diversity of the Indian experience. The story of India is not just one story; it is the sum of these thirty-six, and countless more. It is in the interplay of these diverse histories that a more complete, more textured, and ultimately more fascinating picture of the subcontinent emerges. The journey begins here.

The story of Andhra Pradesh, a state known as the "Rice Bowl of India," is nourished by the fertile deltas of its two great rivers, the Krishna and the Godavari. Much like these rivers, its history has flowed through millennia, depositing rich layers of culture, language, and political power. Its earliest whispers are found in ancient Sanskrit texts like the Aitareya Brahmana, dating back to around 800 BCE, which mentions a tribe known as the Andhras. The Greek historian Megasthenes, visiting the court of Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BCE, noted the Andhras as a formidable power in the southeast, possessing a large army and thirty fortified towns. This early recognition hints at a society already well-established and powerful, second only to the Mauryas themselves.

Following the decline of the Mauryan Empire, the Andhras emerged from the shadows of imperial control to establish their own dynasty, the Satavahanas, around the 2nd century BCE. For the next four and a half centuries, the Satavahanas would dominate the Deccan plateau, creating a vast empire that stretched from coast to coast. They were remarkable rulers, acting as a crucial bridge between the north and south of the subcontinent. The dynasty reached its zenith under rulers like Gautamiputra Satakarni, who fiercely resisted the incursions of foreign invaders like the Sakas. The Satavahanas were not only military powers but also great patrons of culture. They were among the earliest Indian rulers to issue coins with portraits of their kings, a practice adopted from their Western adversaries. They oversaw a flourishing of trade, both internal and maritime, with Roman coins frequently found in their territories, attesting to a vibrant international commerce.

The Satavahanas presided over a period of great religious and artistic development. While they were followers of Brahmanism, they showed remarkable tolerance and patronage towards Buddhism. It was under their rule that the magnificent stupa at Amaravati, on the banks of the Krishna River, was expanded and embellished, becoming one of the most important Buddhist sites in all of India. The art of this period, known as the Amaravati School, is celebrated for its narrative sculptures and elegant depictions of the Buddha's life. The Satavahana kingdom eventually fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE, but their legacy was immense. They had established a powerful political and cultural identity in the Deccan that would endure for centuries.

In the wake of the Satavahanas, the Andhra region was ruled by a succession of dynasties. The Ikshvakus rose to prominence in the Krishna river valley, with their capital at Vijayapuri, near modern-day Nagarjunakonda. Like their predecessors, the Ikshvaku kings were patrons of both Shaivism and Buddhism, and their queens and princes contributed significantly to the construction of Buddhist monuments. Further south, the Pallavas extended their influence into the region from their capital at Kanchipuram. For several centuries, the political landscape remained a mosaic of smaller kingdoms, each vying for control of the fertile lands and strategic ports of the Andhra coast.

A new era of unification and cultural efflorescence began with the rise of the Eastern Chalukyas in the 7th century. Originally governors for the Chalukyas of Badami (in modern-day Karnataka), they established an independent kingdom with their capital at Vengi. For nearly five hundred years, the Eastern Chalukyas ruled over coastal Andhra, a period that saw the consolidation of the region into a distinct political and cultural entity. Their reign marked a golden age for the Telugu language and literature. It was at the court of the Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra that the poet Nannaya Bhattaraka began the monumental task of translating the Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu in the 11th century, a foundational moment for Telugu literature. The dynasty also left a significant architectural legacy, constructing numerous temples dedicated to Shiva, many of which, like the Pancharama Kshetras, remain important pilgrimage sites.

The medieval period witnessed the emergence of the Kakatiya dynasty, which brought the Telugu-speaking lands under a unified rule from their capital at Orugallu (modern-day Warangal) between the 12th and 14th centuries. The Kakatiyas, who began as feudatories, eventually established a powerful independent kingdom. They are remembered for their unique style of architecture, exemplified by the Thousand Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda and the magnificent Warangal Fort. The Kakatiyas also developed an innovative system of administration and were pioneers in water management, constructing a series of interconnected tanks and reservoirs that boosted agricultural productivity across the dry Deccan plateau.

One of the most remarkable figures of this era was Rani Rudrama Devi, one of the few women to rule a kingdom in medieval India. She ascended to the throne in the 13th century and successfully defended her kingdom against numerous challenges, leading her armies in battle. Her reign was a testament to the progressive nature of the Kakatiya court. The golden age of the Kakatiyas, however, came to a dramatic end in the early 14th century. In 1323, the armies of the Delhi Sultanate, under Ulugh Khan, laid siege to Warangal and captured the last Kakatiya king, Prataparudra, bringing their rule to an end.

The fall of the Kakatiyas created a power vacuum, but it also sowed the seeds of the next great South Indian empire. Two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, who had served as treasury officers under the Kakatiyas, founded the Vijayanagara Empire on the banks of the Tungabhadra river. While its capital was in present-day Karnataka, the Vijayanagara Empire was, in many ways, the inheritor of the Kakatiya legacy and a bastion of Telugu culture. The empire reached its pinnacle under the rule of Krishnadevaraya in the early 16th century. A formidable warrior and a great patron of the arts, Krishnadevaraya's reign is often considered the golden age of Telugu literature. His court was home to the "Ashtadiggajas," eight celebrated poets who greatly enriched the language. The empire acted as a powerful bulwark against the expansion of the Bahmani Sultanate and its successor states in the Deccan for over two centuries.

While Vijayanagara flourished, another power was rising in the region. The Qutb Shahi dynasty, one of the five successor states of the Bahmani kingdom, established its rule in 1518 with its capital at the formidable Golconda Fort. The Golconda Sultanate grew wealthy from its diamond mines, which produced some of the world's most famous gems, including, according to legend, the Koh-i-Noor. In the late 16th century, the capital was moved to the newly built city of Hyderabad, with the iconic Charminar constructed to mark its foundation. The Qutb Shahi rulers were patrons of a unique Indo-Persian culture, blending local Telugu traditions with Shia Islamic influences. Their rule came to an end in 1687 when the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered the Golconda fort after a prolonged siege, annexing the kingdom into the Mughal Empire.

As Mughal power waned in the early 18th century, the viceroy of the Deccan, Asaf Jah I, declared his autonomy and established the Asaf Jahi dynasty, taking the title "Nizam of Hyderabad." The Nizams would rule a large princely state that included the Telangana region for the next two centuries. Simultaneously, the coastal regions of Andhra, known as the Northern Circars, became a theater of conflict for European powers. The French, under the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, initially gained influence in the area, being granted several districts by the Nizam. However, the British East India Company, led by figures like Robert Clive, eventually outmaneuvered the French.

Through a series of treaties and military victories, the British secured control over the Northern Circars from the Mughals and the Nizam by the 1760s. In 1800, the Nizam ceded further territories, which came to be known as the Ceded Districts (the Rayalaseema region), to the British in exchange for military protection. With these acquisitions, the vast majority of the Telugu-speaking population, outside of the Nizam's territories, came under direct British rule as part of the sprawling Madras Presidency. This political division—Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema under the British, and Telangana under the Nizam—would profoundly shape the region's destiny for the next century and a half.

The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of a modern Telugu consciousness. Leaders from the region played a prominent role in the Indian nationalist movement. Figures like Kandukuri Veeresalingam Pantulu pioneered social reforms, advocating for women's education and widow remarriage. Alongside the struggle for national independence, another powerful movement was taking root: the demand for a separate state for Telugu-speaking people. For decades, Telugu leaders had argued that their language and culture were being marginalized within the multilingual Madras Presidency. The call for a "Visalandhra" (Greater Andhra) that would unite all Telugu-speaking areas gained momentum.

After India gained independence in 1947, the demand for a separate Andhra state became more insistent. The new Indian government, however, was hesitant to redraw state boundaries on a linguistic basis. The issue reached a dramatic and tragic climax in 1952. A respected Gandhian freedom fighter named Potti Sriramulu began a fast unto death in Madras, demanding the formation of an Andhra state. His fast galvanized the public, but the government did not yield. After 58 days, on the night of December 15, 1952, Potti Sriramulu died.

News of his death plunged the Andhra region into turmoil. Widespread riots and demonstrations erupted, and several people were killed in clashes with the police. The scale of the public grief and anger forced the hand of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Just four days after Sriramulu's death, Nehru announced that the government would agree to the formation of a separate Andhra state. On October 1, 1953, Andhra State, the first state in India to be created on a linguistic basis, came into existence. It was carved out of the eleven Telugu-speaking districts of Madras State, with Kurnool as its temporary capital.

The creation of Andhra State was a landmark event, but the vision of Visalandhra was not yet complete. The States Reorganisation Commission, established by the central government, recommended in 1955 that the Telugu-speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad State be merged with Andhra State. Following a "Gentlemen's Agreement" that sought to address the concerns of the Telangana region, the unified state of Andhra Pradesh was formed on November 1, 1956, with Hyderabad as its capital.

The following decades saw the state make significant strides in agriculture, particularly during the Green Revolution, cementing its status as a major food producer. The state also became a center for political change, most notably with the rise of the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) under the charismatic film star N.T. Rama Rao, which challenged the long-standing dominance of the Congress party. In the 1990s, Hyderabad transformed into a major hub for the information technology industry.

However, the old fissures between the regions persisted. The grievances that had been voiced at the time of the 1956 merger never fully disappeared. A strong movement for a separate Telangana state, arguing that the region had been neglected and its resources unfairly diverted, re-emerged with great force in the 21st century. After years of agitation, the Indian Parliament passed the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act in 2014. On June 2, 2014, the state was bifurcated, and Telangana was carved out as India's 29th state.

This division left a new, smaller Andhra Pradesh facing the monumental task of building a future without its historic capital and economic center, Hyderabad, which was designated as the capital of Telangana. The journey of Andhra Pradesh had come full circle. Born from a powerful assertion of linguistic identity, it had once again been reshaped, facing the dawn of a new era with the challenge of building a new capital and redefining its path forward on the ancient banks of the Krishna and Godavari.