A History of Manipur

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Land and Its People: A Geographical and Ethnographic Overview
• Chapter 2 Prehistoric Manipur: Archaeological Evidence and Early Settlers
• Chapter 3 The Dawn of the Kingdom: The Reign of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba and the Unification of the Seven Clans
• Chapter 4 The Kingdom of Kangleipak: Consolidation and Expansion under Early Meitei Rulers
• Chapter 5 The Reign of King Loiyumba and the First Written Constitution
• Chapter 6 Medieval Manipur: Conflicts with the Shan Kingdom of Pong and the Reign of King Kyamba
• Chapter 7 The Advent of Vaishnavism: Cultural and Religious Transformation
• Chapter 8 The Reign of King Garib Niwaj and the Wars with Burma
• Chapter 9 Chahi-Taret Khuntakpa: The Seven Years of Devastation and its Aftermath
• Chapter 10 The Anglo-Manipuri Relationship and the Treaty of Yandabo
• Chapter 11 The Role of British Political Agents and Growing Influence
• Chapter 12 The Palace Revolt of 1890 and the Events Leading to War
• Chapter 13 The Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891: A Clash of Sovereignties
• Chapter 14 The Battle of Khongjom and the British Conquest of Manipur.
• Chapter 15 The Aftermath of War: Trial of the Patriots and Establishment of British Paramountcy
• Chapter 16 Manipur as a Princely State: Administration and Social Reforms under British Rule
• Chapter 17 Social and Religious Reform Movements in the Colonial Era
• Chapter 18 Manipur during the Second World War: The Battle of Imphal.
• Chapter 19 The End of an Era: Maharaja Bodhchandra Singh and the Instrument of Accession
• Chapter 20 The Merger with India: The Controversial Agreement of 1949
• Chapter 21 The Post-Merger Period: Transition to a Part C State and the Territorial Council.
• Chapter 22 The Struggle for Statehood and its Achievement in 1972
• Chapter 23 The Rise of Insurgency: A Quest for Self-Determination.
• Chapter 24 Contemporary Manipur: Political Developments and Social Movements
• Chapter 25 Ethnic Conflicts and the Quest for Peace and Reconciliation
• Afterword

Nestled in the northeastern corner of India, Manipur is a land of vibrant culture, rich history, and breathtaking landscapes. Often referred to as the "Land of Jewels," a name derived from the Sanskrit "Manipur" which literally translates to "city of jewels," it is a place where history and mythology intertwine. This book, 'A History of Manipur,' embarks on a journey to unravel the multifaceted past of this enigmatic state, from its earliest settlers to its contemporary challenges and triumphs.

Manipur's geographical location is pivotal to its history. Situated at the confluence of India's northeastern frontier and Southeast Asia, it has long served as a gateway between the Indian subcontinent and the East. Bordered by Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south, Assam to the west, and sharing an international boundary with Myanmar to the east, its strategic position has shaped its destiny, making it a melting pot of cultures and a theater of significant historical events.

The state's topography is as diverse as its history, characterized by a central valley surrounded by nine hill ranges. The fertile Imphal Valley, home to the majority of the population, has been the cradle of Manipuri civilization. The surrounding hills are inhabited by numerous tribes, each with its own distinct culture and traditions. This geographical dichotomy between the valley and the hills has been a recurring theme throughout Manipur's history, influencing its social, political, and economic fabric.

The story of Manipur is the story of its people. The Meiteis, the dominant ethnic group residing in the valley, have a long and chronicled history of ruling the kingdom of Manipur. The hills are home to various Naga and Kuki-Zo tribes, who have their own rich oral traditions and histories. Together, these communities form the vibrant mosaic of Manipuri society, each contributing to its unique cultural identity. This book will delve into the histories of all these communities, exploring their origins, migrations, and interactions over the centuries.

The historical narrative of Manipur is a compelling saga of an independent kingdom that withstood the test of time. The royal chronicle of Manipur, the Cheitharol Kumbaba, meticulously documents the reigns of its kings, starting from the first king, Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, in 33 CE. For centuries, Manipur flourished as a sovereign state, developing its own distinct political and social institutions. A significant milestone in its early history was the development of a written constitution under King Loiyumba in the 12th century.

Manipur's journey through the medieval and early modern periods was marked by both internal consolidation and external conflicts. The kingdom engaged in numerous battles with its neighbors, most notably the Burmese. The devastating Burmese invasion in the early 19th century, known as Chahi-Taret Khuntakpa or the "Seven Years' Devastation," left an indelible mark on the Manipuri psyche.

The 19th century heralded a new era in Manipur's history with the arrival of the British. The Anglo-Manipuri relationship, which began with a treaty in 1762, culminated in the Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891. The defeat of the Manipuri forces at the Battle of Khongjom marked the end of its independence and the beginning of British paramountcy. Manipur became a princely state under British rule, a status it retained until the end of British colonial rule in India.

The 20th century was a period of profound transformation for Manipur. The state was a significant theater of war during the Second World War, with the Battle of Imphal being a crucial turning point in the Burma Campaign. The post-war period saw the end of British rule and the contentious merger of Manipur with the newly independent Dominion of India in 1949. This event marked a significant shift in Manipur's political landscape and continues to be a subject of debate and discussion.

The journey from a princely state to a full-fledged state of the Indian Union in 1972 was a long and arduous one. The post-merger period was characterized by a struggle for political identity and autonomy. In recent decades, Manipur has grappled with the complexities of insurgency and ethnic conflicts, which have posed significant challenges to its peace and development.

This book aims to provide a comprehensive and nuanced account of Manipur's history, drawing upon a wide range of sources, including historical chronicles, archaeological evidence, and oral traditions. It seeks to present a balanced narrative, acknowledging the diverse perspectives and experiences of the various communities that call Manipur home.

As we embark on this historical exploration, we will encounter tales of valor and sacrifice, of cultural efflorescence and political turmoil. We will witness the rise and fall of dynasties, the clash of empires, and the resilience of a people who have fiercely guarded their identity and heritage. The history of Manipur is not just a regional chronicle; it is an integral part of the larger story of India and Southeast Asia. It is a story that deserves to be told and understood in all its complexity and richness.

To understand the history of a place is, first, to understand the place itself. The story of Manipur is inextricably linked to its geography—a unique arrangement of a central plain encircled by rugged hills that has profoundly influenced settlement patterns, economic life, and the very course of its history. This chapter provides a foundational overview of Manipur's physical landscape and the diverse mosaic of people who call this land home.

A Bowl of Green: The Physical Landscape

Manipur is a landlocked state in India's northeast, covering an area of 22,327 square kilometers. It shares its borders with Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south, and Assam to the west, while its eastern and southeastern frontiers form an international boundary with Myanmar. This strategic location, a bridge between the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, has made it a historical crossroads of cultures and commerce, as well as a contested frontier.

The state's topography is most famously characterized by its two distinct physical regions: a fertile, oval-shaped central valley and the nine hill ranges that surround it, giving it the appearance of a verdant bowl. The Imphal Valley, as the central plain is known, covers roughly 10% of the state's total area, about 1,864 square kilometers, and lies at an average elevation of 790 meters above sea level. This valley, the heartland of the state, has historically been the seat of power and the cradle of Manipuri civilization. Several rivers, including the Imphal, Iril, and Thoubal, meander through this plain, their waters creating a fertile alluvial expanse ideal for agriculture.

The surrounding hills, which constitute about 90% of Manipur's land area, are extensions of the Himalayan and Patkai ranges. These ranges, running generally north to south, include the Naga Hills in the north, which contain Manipur's highest peak, Mount Tempü, at 2,994 meters. To the west lie the Barail Range, and to the east and south are hill chains that merge into those of Myanmar and Mizoram. These hills are covered in dense forests and dissected by narrow valleys, creating a challenging but resource-rich environment for their inhabitants.

A defining feature of the Imphal Valley is the magnificent Loktak Lake, the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India. A vital resource for the region, it serves as a source for hydropower, irrigation, and drinking water. What makes Loktak Lake truly unique are its phumdis—heterogeneous masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter that float on its surface. These floating islands, some large and stable enough to support human settlements, give the lake an otherworldly appearance. The largest of these phumdis, covering 40 square kilometers, forms the Keibul Lamjao National Park, the world's only floating national park.

Manipur's climate is as varied as its topography, largely influenced by the hill ranges that shield the valley from extreme weather. The state enjoys a subtropical climate, with the mountains protecting it from the cold northern winds and blocking cyclonic storms from the Bay of Bengal. The seasons are distinct: a mild and dry winter from December to February; a pre-monsoon period of rising temperatures from March to May; a warm and rainy monsoon season from June to September; and a pleasant post-monsoon phase in October and November. Temperatures in the valley typically range from a low of around 4°C in the winter to a high of 32°C in the summer. The state receives an average annual rainfall of about 1,467.5 mm.

This combination of topography and climate has endowed Manipur with rich biodiversity. The forests are home to a variety of flora and fauna, including rare orchids and elusive species like the clouded leopard. The most celebrated resident of this ecosystem is the Sangai, or the brow-antlered deer (Rucervus eldii eldii). This endangered species, the state animal of Manipur, is found nowhere else in the world. Its natural habitat is the floating meadows of the Keibul Lamjao National Park. Known colloquially as the "dancing deer" for its graceful gait as it navigates the springy phumdis, the Sangai is a powerful symbol of Manipur's unique natural heritage.

A Mosaic of Peoples: The Ethnographic Landscape

The people of Manipur are as diverse as its geography. Broadly, the population can be divided into the communities of the valley and the tribes of the hills. This geographical division has, for centuries, also represented a cultural and political one. The valley is predominantly inhabited by the Meiteis, while the hills are home to numerous tribes generally grouped into the larger ethno-denominations of Naga and Kuki-Zo.

The Meiteis of the Valley

The Meiteis are the majority ethnic group, constituting about 53% of the state's population and residing primarily in the fertile Imphal Valley. They speak Meiteilon (also known as Manipuri), a Tibeto-Burman language that serves as the official language and lingua franca of the state. The origins of the Meitei people are a subject of ongoing study, with various theories suggesting ancestral links to groups from the east and west. Historical chronicles, known as Puyas, trace their lineage back to the establishment of the Ningthouja dynasty in the 1st century CE.

Meitei society is traditionally organized around seven clans or salais (Ningthouja, Angom, Khuman, Moirang, Luwang, Sarang-Leishangthem, and Khaba-Nganba), which were once independent principalities that later coalesced to form the Meitei kingdom. This clan structure continues to play a significant role in social customs and rituals.

Religiously, the Meiteis present a fascinating example of synthesis. The indigenous faith is Sanamahism, a polytheistic religion named after the deity Lainingthou Sanamahi. This ancient belief system involves the worship of a pantheon of deities, including a supreme creator, ancestral gods, and guardian spirits of specific places known as Umang Lai. A cornerstone of this faith is the worship of Sanamahi and the earth goddess Leimarel Sidabi in the southwestern corner of every traditional Meitei household. The 18th century saw the large-scale adoption of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a sect of Hinduism, under royal patronage. However, this did not lead to the erasure of the older faith. Instead, a unique syncretism emerged, where Hindu deities were worshiped alongside the traditional pantheon, and Sanamahi practices continue to be an integral part of Meitei cultural and religious life.

Within the valley community are the Meitei Pangals, or Manipuri Muslims. Constituting over 8% of the state's population, their history in Manipur dates back to the early 17th century, during the reign of King Khagemba. The first settlers are believed to have been Muslim soldiers who were captured in a conflict and subsequently settled in the valley, where they married local women and integrated into the society. Over centuries, they adopted Meiteilon as their mother tongue and many local customs, while retaining their Islamic faith, creating a distinct and syncretic cultural identity.

The Tribes of the Hills

The hills surrounding the valley are inhabited by over 33 recognized tribes, each with its own distinct language, customs, and traditions. These tribes are generally categorized under two broader groupings: the Nagas and the Kuki-Zo peoples.

The Naga tribes of Manipur predominantly inhabit the northern, eastern, and western hill districts. Among the prominent Naga tribes in Manipur are the Tangkhul, Mao, Maram, Poumai, Zeliangrong (a composite group of Zeme, Liangmai, and Rongmei), Maring, and Anal. Historically, Naga society was organized around autonomous villages, each with its own council of elders and a strong warrior tradition. While their languages and specific cultural practices differ, they share common oral histories of migration and a collective identity. Many oral traditions of the Naga tribes point to a dispersal from a mythical point of origin, often identified as Makhel in the present-day Senapati district. Christianity became the dominant religion among the Naga tribes from the late 19th century onwards, profoundly influencing their social and cultural life, though many traditional customs and festivals continue to be celebrated.

The Kuki-Zo tribes are found largely in the southern hill districts of Manipur. This group includes tribes such as the Thadou, Paite, Hmar, Vaiphei, Zou, Gangte, and Simte. They speak a variety of related languages belonging to the Kuki-Chin branch of the Tibeto-Burman family. Kuki-Zo social structure is traditionally based on a system of chieftainship, where a village chief holds significant authority over land and community affairs. Like the Nagas, the Kuki-Zo tribes have rich oral traditions that recount their ancestral journeys and genealogies. They also largely adopted Christianity in the 20th century, which now plays a central role in community life.

The clear geographical distinction between the valley and the hills has been a defining feature of Manipur's history. The fertile valley supported a settled agricultural economy, which in turn allowed for the development of a centralized state under the Meitei kings. The hill areas, with their rugged terrain, were more suited to slash-and-burn cultivation (jhum) and a more decentralized, village-based political structure. This fundamental geographical and economic dichotomy shaped the historical relationship between the valley dwellers and the hill tribes—a complex interplay of trade, raids, alliances, and assertions of sovereignty that will be a recurring theme in the chapters to come. The land and its people are the two essential pillars upon which the entire edifice of Manipuri history is built.