A History of Cyprus

• Introduction

• Chapter 1 Earliest Inhabitants: Paleolithic and Neolithic Cyprus (c. 11,000 - 3800 BC)

• Chapter 2 The Age of Copper: Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age (c. 3800 - 1650 BC)

• Chapter 3 Alashiya: Cyprus in the Late Bronze Age World (c. 1650 - 1100 BC)

• Chapter 4 Echoes of Heroes: Greek Settlement and the Rise of Kingdoms (c. 1100 - 750 BC)

• Chapter 5 Crossroads of Empires: Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Egyptians (c. 850 - 545 BC)

• Chapter 6 Under the Great King: Persian Rule and the Ionian Revolt (545 - 333 BC)

• Chapter 7 Alexander's Island: Conquest and Hellenistic Dominance (333 - 294 BC)

• Chapter 8 The Ptolemaic Era: Integration into the Hellenistic World (294 - 58 BC)

• Chapter 9 Provincia Cyprus: Roman Annexation and Administration (58 BC - c. 100 AD)

• Chapter 10 Pax Romana and Crisis: Life under Roman Rule (c. 100 - 330 AD)

• Chapter 11 The Christian Island: Early Byzantine Rule (c. 330 - 649 AD)

• Chapter 12 Between Cross and Crescent: The Arab-Byzantine Condominium (649 - 965 AD)

• Chapter 13 Return to Byzantium: Thematic Rule and Komnenian Era (965 - 1185 AD)

• Chapter 14 The Lionheart's Conquest: Cyprus and the Third Crusade (1185 - 1192 AD)

• Chapter 15 The Lusignan Kingdom: Establishment and Consolidation (1192 - 1291 AD)

• Chapter 16 Zenith and Decline: The Later Lusignan Era (1291 - 1426 AD)

• Chapter 17 Vassalage and Collapse: The End of Lusignan Rule (1426 - 1489 AD)

• Chapter 18 The Lion of St. Mark: Venetian Rule (1489 - 1571 AD)

• Chapter 19 Under the Sultan: Ottoman Conquest and Early Rule (1571 - 1750 AD)

• Chapter 20 Seeds of Nationalism: Late Ottoman Rule and the Greek Awakening (1750 - 1878 AD)

• Chapter 21 Britannia's Base: British Administration and the Rise of Enosis (1878 - 1931 AD)

• Chapter 22 Road to Confrontation: Palmerokratia, World War II, and the Emergency (1931 - 1959 AD)

• Chapter 23 Independence and Division: The Early Republic and Intercommunal Conflict (1960 - 1974 AD)

• Chapter 24 Invasion and Occupation: The 1974 Crisis and its Aftermath (1974 - 2003 AD)

• Chapter 25 Cyprus Divided in Europe: Challenges and Prospects (2004 - Present Day)

• Afterword

• Glossary

Nestled in the easternmost corner of the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus stands as a testament to the ebb and flow of human history. It is an island whose diminutive size belies its immense strategic significance and the staggering depth of its past. For millennia, this landmass, the third largest in the Mediterranean, has served as a bridge, a prize, and a battleground for the great civilizations and empires that rose and fell around it. Its shores have welcomed intrepid hunter-gatherers, pioneering farmers, Mycenaean traders, Phoenician merchants, and waves of conquerors – Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Venetians, Ottomans, and British. Each has left an indelible mark, contributing layers to a cultural identity that is as complex and multifaceted as the island's landscape itself.

Geographically, Cyprus is positioned at a critical juncture. Lying south of the Anatolian peninsula (modern-day Turkey), west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Egypt, and southeast of Greece, it is a natural stepping stone between Europe, Asia, and Africa. This proximity to major landmasses and ancient power centers has been both a blessing and a curse. It facilitated trade, cultural exchange, and the spread of ideas, placing Cyprus at the heart of the ancient world's networks. Yet, this same strategic value made it an irresistible target for expansionist powers seeking control over Mediterranean trade routes, access to its natural resources, or a forward base for military campaigns. The very name "Cyprus," through the Latin aes Cyprium ("metal of Cyprus"), gave the world the word "copper," hinting at one of the island's earliest sources of wealth and a primary reason for its prominence in antiquity.

The island's physical geography further shaped its destiny. The rugged Troodos Mountains dominate the southwestern interior, their highest peak, Mount Olympus, rising nearly two thousand meters. This range was the ancient source of the island’s famed copper deposits. Along the northern coast runs the narrower, but historically significant, Kyrenia Range. Between these two mountain chains lies the fertile central plain, the Mesaoria, the island's agricultural heartland, drained by its longest river, the Pedieos. Sheltered harbors along its extensive coastline provided safe haven for ships, further enhancing its role as a maritime hub. This varied landscape offered resources, from timber and minerals in the mountains to grain, olives, and wine in the plains, attracting settlement and exploitation throughout history.

This book embarks on a journey through this rich and often turbulent past, charting the history of Cyprus from its earliest known human habitation over thirteen thousand years ago to the complexities of its present-day reality. We will traverse the millennia, exploring the island’s transformation from a land of prehistoric hunter-gatherers and early farming communities, like the remarkably preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia, to the sophisticated urbanized society of the Late Bronze Age, known then perhaps as Alashiya, a major player in the eastern Mediterranean copper trade.

We will follow the arrival of Mycenaean Greeks, whose settlement profoundly shaped the island’s cultural trajectory, weaving Cyprus into the fabric of Greek mythology as the legendary birthplace of Aphrodite. We will witness its incorporation into the vast empires of the Near East – Assyria, Egypt, and Persia – periods during which the island often maintained a degree of autonomy through its local city-kingdoms, such as Salamis, Kition, and Paphos, which navigated the treacherous currents of imperial politics. The conquests of Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic age, fully integrating Cyprus into the Greek-speaking world under the rule of the Ptolemies of Egypt, before the inexorable rise of Rome brought the island into its provincial system for centuries.

The story continues with the division of the Roman Empire, placing Cyprus within the orbit of Byzantium. This era cemented the island's Hellenistic-Christian character, centered on the autocephalous Church of Cyprus, an institution destined to play a pivotal role in Cypriot identity and politics for centuries to come. We will examine the challenging period of the Arab-Byzantine condominium, a unique arrangement where the island was shared, albeit often contentiously, between the rival powers for three centuries. The subsequent restoration of full Byzantine rule was followed by internal revolts and, ultimately, the dramatic arrival of the Third Crusade, when Richard the Lionheart of England conquered the island, ending centuries of Byzantine control.

This ushered in a distinct medieval phase, beginning with the sale of the island to the Knights Templar and then, more permanently, to the French Lusignan dynasty. The Lusignans established a Crusader kingdom, transforming Cyprus into a feudal society with a French-speaking aristocracy ruling over the majority Greek Orthodox population. Nicosia flourished as a Gothic capital, and coastal cities like Famagusta became vital hubs for East-West trade, especially after the fall of the Crusader states on the mainland. The Lusignan era, though marked by internal power struggles and eventual vassalage to the Mamluks of Egypt, was a period of significant cultural exchange and economic activity.

The decline of the Lusignans paved the way for the Republic of Venice to assume control in 1489. Recognizing the island's strategic importance as an outpost against the burgeoning Ottoman Empire, the Venetians heavily fortified Nicosia and Famagusta. Their rule, however, was relatively brief, ending dramatically with the Ottoman conquest of 1570-71. The arrival of the Ottomans brought profound demographic and social changes, including the settlement of Turkish soldiers and civilians, the establishment of a significant Muslim community alongside the Greek Orthodox population, and the implementation of the millet system, which granted religious autonomy but placed the Archbishop of Cyprus as the recognized leader of the Greek Cypriot community.

Three centuries of Ottoman rule, varying in its efficiency and leniency, eventually gave way to British administration in 1878 under the Cyprus Convention. Initially leased from the Ottomans, the island was formally annexed by Britain in 1914. The British era brought administrative reforms, infrastructural development, and closer ties to Europe, but it also coincided with the rise of competing nationalisms. The Greek Cypriot community increasingly pursued enosis – union with Greece – a dream rooted in shared language, religion, and culture, and fueled by the independence of Greece itself. Conversely, the Turkish Cypriot community, fearing marginalization under Greek rule, initially favored continued British control before later advocating for taksim – partition of the island – often looking towards Turkey for support.

The post-World War II era saw these competing aspirations intensify, leading to the EOKA campaign for enosis against British rule in the 1950s, countered by the Turkish Cypriot TMT organization advocating partition. Instead of either union or partition, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960 as a bi-communal republic under a complex power-sharing constitution with Britain, Greece, and Turkey as guarantor powers. However, the constitutional arrangements proved unworkable, collapsing amidst intercommunal violence in 1963-64, which led to the withdrawal of Turkish Cypriots from government and their displacement into enclaves, and the arrival of UN peacekeeping forces.

The fragile status quo was shattered in 1974. A coup d'état orchestrated by the military junta then ruling Greece, aimed at achieving enosis, prompted a swift military invasion by Turkey, citing its guarantor rights. The invasion led to the division of the island, the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people (Greek Cypriots fleeing south, Turkish Cypriots moving north), and the establishment of a de facto Turkish Cypriot administration in the northern third of the island. This administration declared independence as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) in 1983, a state recognized only by Turkey. The southern two-thirds remained under the control of the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus.

This division, maintained by a UN buffer zone known as the Green Line, remains the central political reality of Cyprus today. The Republic of Cyprus joined the European Union in 2004, technically as a whole island, though EU law is suspended in the north pending a settlement. Numerous attempts to reunify the island, including the UN-sponsored Annan Plan referendum in 2004, have failed to bridge the political divide. The Cyprus problem continues to dominate the island's politics, impact Greco-Turkish relations, and pose challenges within the European Union.

Throughout this long and complex narrative, several key themes emerge, which this book will explore. The island's strategic location is a constant, making it a coveted asset for powers seeking regional dominance, from ancient empires vying for control of the sea lanes to modern nations seeking military bases or influence in the volatile Eastern Mediterranean. This strategic importance often translated into conflict, invasion, and foreign rule, shaping the islanders’ resilience and sense of identity.

Cyprus as a cultural crossroads is another dominant theme. Its history is one of interaction, assimilation, and sometimes friction between diverse peoples and traditions. The foundational Hellenic culture absorbed influences from the Near East, Anatolia, and Egypt. Roman administration, Byzantine Orthodoxy, French feudalism, Venetian commerce, Ottoman Islamic culture, and British colonial practices all contributed layers to the Cypriot experience. This continuous interplay created unique cultural expressions in language, art, architecture, cuisine, and social customs, while also forming the basis for the distinct Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities.

The island’s natural resources, particularly copper in antiquity and timber historically, were crucial factors driving its economy and attracting foreign interest. While these resources brought periods of prosperity, they also made Cyprus a target, linking its economic fate closely to the demands and control of external powers. In modern times, the discovery of offshore natural gas reserves has introduced a new dimension to the island's resource narrative and geopolitical significance.

Religion has been a powerful force throughout Cypriot history. From the prehistoric reverence for fertility goddesses culminating in the island-wide cult of Aphrodite, to the early adoption and enduring strength of Orthodox Christianity, and the later introduction of Islam, religious identity has been deeply intertwined with cultural and political life. The autocephalous Church of Cyprus, in particular, played a vital role in preserving Hellenic identity during centuries of foreign rule and emerged as a major political force in the modern era. Similarly, Islam became a defining element for the Turkish Cypriot community.

Finally, the themes of conflict and identity are inextricably linked. Rivalries between ancient city-kingdoms gave way to struggles against imperial overlords. The Crusader period established a pattern of rule by a foreign elite over the local population. The Ottoman era solidified the ethno-religious distinction between Greek Orthodox Christians and Turkish Muslims. The British period saw the rise of competing nationalisms centered on Greece and Turkey, respectively. Independence, tragically, did not bring harmony but rather intensified intercommunal conflict, culminating in the division that defines the island today. Understanding the historical roots of these conflicts and the evolution of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot identities is crucial for comprehending the ongoing Cyprus problem.

This book aims to present this multifaceted history in a clear, chronological, and engaging manner. Drawing upon archaeological findings, ancient texts, medieval chronicles, Ottoman and colonial archives, and modern historical scholarship, it seeks to provide a balanced account of the island's journey. While navigating periods of conflict and controversy, the narrative endeavors to maintain neutrality, presenting different perspectives where they exist and allowing the historical facts to speak for themselves. The structure follows the major chronological periods outlined in the table of contents, dedicating chapters to specific eras and transformative events.

Understanding the history of Cyprus is not merely an academic exercise. It offers insights into the dynamics of empire, the complexities of cultural interaction, the formation of national identities, the impact of strategic geography, and the enduring legacies of conflict. In the 21st century, Cyprus remains a place of geopolitical interest, an EU member state grappling with division, a potential energy hub, and a custodian of millennia of human heritage. Its past continues to shape its present and influence its future. We invite the reader to join us in exploring this remarkable island story, a microcosm of the Mediterranean world and a compelling chapter in the broader history of human civilization.

Long before any human footprint marked its shores, Cyprus was an isolated sanctuary for a peculiar assembly of creatures. Free from the pressures of mainland predators and competition, some animals evolved into unique, smaller forms through the process known as insular dwarfism. Most notable among these were the Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus (Hippopotamus minor), a creature perhaps only 75 centimeters high at the shoulder, and the Cyprus dwarf elephant (Palaeoloxodon cypriotes), standing barely a meter tall. These miniature megafauna, alongside a species of genet (Genetta plesictoides) and the still-extant Cypriot mouse (Mus cypriacus), roamed the island for tens, possibly hundreds, of thousands of years, their ancestors having likely arrived via swimming or accidental rafting from the mainland.

This relative tranquility was shattered around thirteen thousand years ago (circa 11,000 BC). The arrival of the first humans, hunter-gatherers likely originating from the Levant region to the east, marked a profound turning point. Evidence for these earliest Cypriots comes primarily from sites like Aetokremnos, dramatically situated on a cliff on the southern coast near Limassol, and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias. The timing is stark: the archaeological layers containing the earliest human artifacts at Aetokremnos also contain the last known remains of the pygmy hippos and dwarf elephants. While direct proof of overhunting remains debated, the coincidence strongly suggests human activity played a crucial role in the extinction of the island's only large native mammals.

These initial inhabitants were skilled hunters and foragers, adapting to the island's resources. Their toolkit, reminiscent of the Natufian culture known from the mainland Levant, included stone implements suited for hunting and processing food. They navigated an island richer in forests than today, exploiting its wild plants and smaller game. Intriguingly, about a millennium after their own arrival, around 12,000 years ago (10,000 BC), these hunter-gatherers appear to have deliberately introduced wild boar to Cyprus, likely managing them as a sustainable source of meat – an early example of resource management that foreshadowed the dramatic changes to come.

The next great transformation began around 8,500 BC, marking the dawn of the Neolithic era in Cyprus. This wasn't merely an internal development; it involved the arrival of new people, seemingly from Anatolia or the Levant, who brought with them the revolutionary technologies and practices of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) culture: agriculture and animal husbandry. These newcomers weren't just hunters; they were farmers, ready to cultivate the land and establish permanent settlements. They ushered in a period of profound change, laying the foundations for settled life on the island.

This early phase, known as the Aceramic (or Pre-Pottery) Neolithic, lasted for over two millennia, until about 6000 BC. The settlers introduced domesticated sheep and goats, alongside dogs and pigs. Cattle were also brought over, perhaps in smaller numbers, as evidenced at sites like Shillourokambos, but they seem to have died out during this period and were not reintroduced for thousands of years. Wild animals like the red fox and Persian fallow deer were also introduced, intentionally or otherwise, altering the island's fauna forever. These early farmers cultivated einkorn and emmer wheat, staples that would sustain their growing communities.

The hallmark of the Aceramic Neolithic settlements was their distinctive architecture. Villages consisted of clusters of circular houses, often referred to by the Greek term tholoi. These structures typically had foundations made of river pebbles or rough stones, supporting walls built of sun-dried mudbrick. Floors were often made of a remarkable material called terrazzo – essentially a form of concrete made from burnt lime plaster, polished to a smooth, durable finish. Examples of these settlements, such as Khirokitia, Shillourokambos, Tenta, and Kastros, reveal sophisticated planning and construction techniques.

Khirokitia (also spelled Choirokoitia), located in the Maroni valley near the south coast, is arguably the most famous of these sites. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it offers an unparalleled glimpse into Aceramic Neolithic life. The village was densely packed with round houses, some reaching impressive diameters of up to 10 meters. These houses were often clustered together, sometimes linked to form larger compounds, suggesting extended family units or shared activity areas. Internal features like hearths, platforms, and benches indicate specific uses for different parts of the structures. The village itself was strategically positioned on the slope of a hill within a meander of the river, and protected on the landward side by a substantial wall.

Life in these villages revolved around the rhythms of agriculture and animal herding. Men likely focused on cultivating cereals and legumes (lentils, beans, and peas have been identified), hunting the introduced fallow deer, and managing flocks of sheep and goats – although the animal remains suggest these early domesticates were still morphologically quite similar to their wild ancestors. Women were probably engaged in a range of domestic tasks, including grinding grain, preparing food, raising children, and crafting textiles, evidenced by finds of spindle whorls used for spinning thread.

Stone was the primary material for tools and vessels during this pre-pottery phase. The inhabitants displayed remarkable skill in crafting a wide array of items from stone. Flint and chert were knapped into blades, scrapers, and arrowheads. Harder stones like andesite and diabase were laboriously ground and polished to create bowls, platters, and decorative items. These stone vessels, often elegant in their simplicity, are a characteristic feature of the Khirokitia culture. The absence of pottery meant that storage, cooking, and serving relied heavily on these stone containers, as well as perhaps vessels made from organic materials like wood or basketry, which rarely survive archaeologically.

A fascinating discovery shedding light on the sophistication of these early Cypriots was made in western Cyprus: water wells dating back an astonishing 9,000 to 10,500 years. These are among the oldest known water wells in the world. Their construction implies not only an advanced understanding of hydrology and engineering for the time but also a deep connection to place and a need to secure a reliable water source for their permanent settlements, reflecting a heightened appreciation for managing the environment.

Burial practices during the Aceramic Neolithic were intimate and integrated into daily life. The dead were typically buried within the settlement, often beneath the floors of the houses themselves. These were usually individual inhumations, with the body placed in a contracted or flexed position within a simple pit. Grave goods were generally scarce, although occasionally personal ornaments like stone beads or pendants accompanied the deceased. This practice suggests a close connection between the living and the dead, perhaps reflecting beliefs about ancestry and the continuity of the household or community.

Studies of the human remains from Khirokitia suggest life was often short. The average age at death appears to have been around 34 years, with a high rate of infant mortality. These early farming communities faced significant challenges, including disease, the risks associated with childbirth, and the constant labor required for subsistence.

Perhaps one of the most captivating finds from this period offers insight into the early relationship between humans and animals beyond mere utility. At the Neolithic site of Shillourokambos, archaeologists unearthed a grave estimated to be 9,500 years old (c. 7500 BC). Alongside the human remains lay the carefully buried skeleton of an eight-month-old cat. This discovery dramatically pushed back the timeline for feline-human association, predating similar evidence from ancient Egypt by millennia. It suggests that cats were perhaps already being tamed or at least tolerated and valued by humans, possibly for companionship or pest control, much earlier than previously thought.

Around 6000 BC, the vibrant Aceramic Neolithic culture appears to have collapsed or disappeared relatively abruptly. The reasons remain unclear – environmental change, resource depletion, disease, or social upheaval are all possibilities. What is striking is the apparent archaeological hiatus that followed. For nearly 1,500 years, there is scant evidence for significant human settlement on Cyprus. Whether the island was largely depopulated, or whether settlement patterns changed in ways that are difficult to detect archaeologically, remains a subject of ongoing research and debate.

Human presence returned significantly around 4500 BC, initiating a new phase known as the Ceramic Neolithic (or Neolithic II). This era is marked by the arrival of newcomers or at least the adoption of new cultural traits, the most prominent being the introduction of pottery. After millennia of relying on stone, wood, and basketry, Cypriots began crafting vessels from fired clay, revolutionizing storage, cooking, and art.

The type site for this period is Sotira Teppes, located near the south coast. Excavations revealed a village quite different from Khirokitia. It comprised around fifty free-standing houses, generally square with rounded corners, featuring thin walls, internal hearths, benches, and partitions. Some sub-rectangular houses had multiple rooms. The characteristic pottery of the Sotira phase is monochrome (single-colored), often decorated with distinctive combed patterns applied before firing. This pottery style is found at other sites, including the earliest levels of Erimi (a site primarily known for the subsequent Chalcolithic period) and potentially at Troulli on the north coast, suggesting a widespread cultural horizon.

The later stages of the Ceramic Neolithic, lasting until around 3800 BC, saw further developments. A new style of pottery emerged, characterized by striking red geometric or floral patterns painted onto a white background (Red-on-White ware). Settlement forms also continued to evolve. At Kalavassos-Pamboules, near the south coast, excavations revealed sunken houses, dug partially into the ground, a departure from the earlier free-standing structures of Sotira. This period represents the final phase of the Neolithic way of life in Cyprus.

The long span of the Neolithic era, from the first farmers around 8500 BC to the end of the Ceramic phase around 3800 BC, witnessed the establishment of permanent villages, the development of agriculture and animal husbandry tailored to the island environment, and the creation of distinctive material cultures. From the impressive round houses and sophisticated stone vessels of the Aceramic period to the introduction of pottery in the Ceramic phase, these early Cypriots laid the groundwork for future developments. Their innovations, adaptations, and the societies they built represent the crucial first chapters in the island’s deep history. Around 3800 BC, a major earthquake appears to have struck the island, destroying settlements and marking a transition point. Out of this disruption, a new era would dawn – the Chalcolithic, the age of copper and stone – setting the stage for Cyprus's emergence onto the wider Mediterranean stage.