Mauritania

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Ancient Inhabitants: Berbers and Bafour
• Chapter 2 The Almoravid Empire and the Spread of Islam
• Chapter 3 The Arrival of the Beni Hassan and the Arabization of Mauritania
• Chapter 4 The Pre-colonial Emirates of Trarza, Brakna, and others
• Chapter 5 Early European Contact and the Gum Arabic Trade
• Chapter 6 The Establishment of the French Protectorate
• Chapter 7 Life Under French Colonial Rule
• Chapter 8 The Road to Independence and the Rise of Moktar Ould Daddah
• Chapter 9 The Early Years of Independence and National Unity
• Chapter 10 The One-Party State and Authoritarian Rule
• Chapter 11 The Western Sahara Conflict and its Consequences
• Chapter 12 The 1978 Coup and the Beginning of Military Rule
• Chapter 13 A Succession of Coups and Political Instability
• Chapter 14 The Legacy of Slavery and Efforts at Abolition
• Chapter 15 Ethnic Tensions and the 1989 Border Conflict with Senegal
• Chapter 16 The Rule of Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
• Chapter 17 The Transition to a Multi-Party System
• Chapter 18 The 2005 Coup and the Hope for Democracy
• Chapter 19 The 2008 Coup and the Return of Military Dominance
• Chapter 20 The Presidency of Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz
• Chapter 21 The Discovery of Oil and its Economic Impact
• Chapter 22 The Rise of Islamic Extremism and Regional Security Concerns
• Chapter 23 Recent Political Developments and the 2019 Election
• Chapter 24 Mauritania's Foreign Relations: A Balancing Act
• Chapter 25 Contemporary Challenges and the Future of the Nation
• Afterword
• Glossary of Terms

To know Mauritania is to know the space between things. It is a nation that lives in the transitions—between the Maghreb of North Africa and the myriad cultures of sub-Saharan Africa, between the endless Atlantic and the equally endless Sahara, and between a deeply rooted past and an uncertain future. This is a land of profound emptiness and immense scale, a place where for much of its history the Sahara has served not as a barrier but as an avenue for conquest, faith, and trade. Nearly 90 percent of its territory is consumed by the desert, a landscape of flat, arid plains, shifting sand dunes, and rocky plateaus that have shaped the very character of its people. The story of Mauritania is the story of a nation forged in the crucible of this harsh environment, a narrative defined by the movement of peoples, the clash of cultures, and the enduring quest to create a unified identity from a mosaic of diverse and often competing groups.

The human story in this part of the world is ancient, stretching back to a time when the Sahara was a more forgiving savanna. Its earliest known inhabitants included peoples like the Bafour, who were among the first Saharan people to transition from a nomadic life to an agricultural one. They were later joined by waves of Berber migrants arriving from the north from the 3rd century CE onwards. These Berber tribes established complex societies and trade networks that would lay the groundwork for future empires. The narrative of the nation, however, fundamentally changed with the arrival of Arab groups and the introduction of Islam. First entering the region in the 7th and 8th centuries, Islam slowly but surely took root, becoming the single most important cultural and social force in the region. This process of Islamization culminated dramatically in the 11th century with the rise of the Almoravids. This puritanical Islamic reform movement, born from a confederation of local Sanhadja Berber tribes, erupted from the Mauritanian desert to forge a vast empire that stretched from the plains of West Africa to the heart of Spain, forever altering the religious and political landscape of two continents.

The fall of the Almoravids ushered in a new era of transformation defined by a gradual but relentless process of Arabization. From the 13th century, Yemeni Arab tribes, most notably the Beni Hassan, migrated south into the region. Their arrival initiated a centuries-long struggle for dominance with the established Berber populations. This conflict, the Char Bouba War of 1644-1674, ended with the victory of the Beni Hassan, cementing Arab cultural and linguistic dominance. The descendants of these warriors became the new ruling class, and their dialect, Hassaniya Arabic, became the lingua franca of a complex and rigidly stratified society. This hierarchy placed the warrior tribes at the top, followed by the Berber groups who often turned to Islamic scholarship to maintain influence, and at the bottom were the enslaved populations, drawn largely from the Black African communities who were either subjugated or pushed south towards the Senegal River.

This intricate social order was largely intact when European powers began to take a more direct interest in the region. For centuries, European contact had been limited to coastal trade, primarily for gum arabic. France, operating from its base in Senegal, gradually expanded its influence. Yet, colonial control over the vast and fiercely independent interior was tenuous at best. Dubbed "Le Grand Vide" or "the great void" by the French, Mauritania was seen more as a strategic buffer between French possessions in North and West Africa than a prize in itself. Full "pacification" was not achieved until well into the 20th century, and French rule, which lasted for a mere two generations, did little to fundamentally alter the traditional social structures it found. Instead, the colonial administration often governed indirectly, co-opting the existing emirs and chiefs to maintain order.

Independence, granted in 1960, did not bring an end to Mauritania's challenges; it merely recast them. A new capital, Nouakchott, was founded on the site of a small colonial village, a testament to a nation where 90 percent of the population was still nomadic at the time of its birth. The post-independence era was immediately fraught with the difficult task of nation-building. Tensions quickly emerged between the Moorish population, who envisioned an Arab state, and the sub-Saharan African groups (including the Halpulaar, Soninke, and Wolof), many of whom had moved into the country and, often educated in French, became administrators in the new government. This fundamental schism over national identity has been a recurring theme throughout Mauritania's modern history.

The country's political trajectory has been turbulent, marked by a series of military coups and periods of authoritarian rule, beginning with the ousting of its first president, Moktar Ould Daddah, in 1978. This political instability was exacerbated by external conflicts, most notably the costly and divisive war in the Western Sahara after Mauritania annexed the southern portion of the territory in 1976. The nation has also been rocked by internal strife, including a bitter border conflict with Senegal in 1989 that highlighted the deep-seated ethnic tensions simmering beneath the surface.

Running through this entire history, from the pre-colonial emirates to the present day, is the deeply entrenched and painful legacy of slavery. For centuries, a rigid caste system existed, with the light-skinned Arab-Berber Bīḍān, or "White Moors," forming the aristocracy, and the darker-skinned Haratin, or "Black Moors"—descendants of enslaved Black Africans—occupying the bottom of the social ladder. Though officially abolished in 1981, making Mauritania the last country in the world to do so, the practice and its social vestiges have proven stubbornly persistent. This complex system of servitude, social stratification, and discrimination remains one of the most significant and challenging issues facing the nation today, shaping its politics, economy, and social relations in profound ways.

This book seeks to navigate the long and complex history of this desert nation. It will trace the story from its ancient inhabitants through the great empires and the arrival of Islam, the establishment of the pre-colonial emirates, and the brief but impactful period of French colonial rule. It will then delve into the tumultuous decades since independence, examining the cycles of military coups, the Western Sahara conflict, the persistent scourge of slavery, and the ongoing ethnic tensions. Finally, it will explore the contemporary challenges and opportunities facing Mauritania, from the discovery of oil and its economic implications to the rise of Islamic extremism in the Sahel and the country's delicate diplomatic balancing act. Through this chronological journey, the central themes of Mauritania's history will emerge: the constant interplay between its diverse ethnic groups, the enduring struggle to forge a cohesive national identity, the cyclical nature of political instability, and the profound and lasting impact of its unforgiving Saharan environment.

To understand the first stirrings of human society in Mauritania is to first understand the land itself, and to appreciate that the landscape seen today is a mere snapshot in a long and dramatic history of climatic transformation. The vast, parched expanse of the Sahara, which now defines nearly the entire territory, was once a more hospitable place. During what is known as the African humid period, or the "Green Sahara," which lasted from approximately 11,000 to 5,000 years ago, the region experienced significantly more rainfall. This supported a savanna environment, a land of grasses, trees, and lakes that teemed with wildlife. This greener, more benevolent Sahara was not a barrier but a cradle, supporting a flourishing culture of hunters, pastoralists, and fishermen.

The evidence of this ancient, wetter world is etched into the modern landscape. Prehistoric rock drawings and engravings discovered across the country depict elephants, giraffes, and crocodiles, animals that could not possibly survive in the current arid conditions. These artworks, alongside archaeological findings, are the primary sources for understanding the earliest chapters of Mauritania's human story, a time before written records. They speak of a society deeply connected to the natural world, a world that was, over millennia, slowly and inexorably changing.

The First Settlers of the Green Sahara

The earliest identifiable people to create complex, settled communities in this region are known today as the Bafour. The term "Bafour" is somewhat enigmatic, possibly a loose designation for the diverse, pre-Berber inhabitants of the region. Archaeological and oral traditions suggest they were a Black African people, likely belonging to the Mande ethnic group and possibly ancestors of the modern Soninke people. Before the Sahara's widespread desertification, the Bafour thrived. They were among the first to transition from a purely nomadic existence to a more settled, agricultural lifestyle, cultivating date palms and other crops in the increasingly precious fertile areas.

The most significant evidence of this early civilization can be found along the sandstone cliffs of south-central Mauritania, particularly at sites like Dhar Tichitt. Beginning as early as 2000 BCE, the inhabitants of this region began constructing what would become one of West Africa's oldest urban landscapes. They built hundreds of stone-walled settlements, featuring distinct compounds with houses, granaries, and planned street layouts. Some larger settlements were even surrounded by formidable common walls, suggesting a high degree of social organization and cooperation. These were not simple villages but pivotal centers in a multi-tiered society.

The people of the Tichitt culture were resourceful and adaptive. In addition to cultivating bulrush millet, they herded livestock like cattle, sheep, and goats, and supplemented their diets by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild grains. This sophisticated agropastoral society flourished for nearly two millennia, representing an early peak of civilization in the Western Sahara. However, they were living on borrowed time. As the climate continued to dry, the lakes receded and the savannas turned to sand. This environmental pressure, which perhaps led to overgrazing and overcultivation, instigated a gradual southward migration of these early peoples toward the more reliable water sources of the Senegal River valley.

The Camel and the Coming of the Berbers

The next great transformation in Mauritania's history was driven by two factors: the continued desiccation of the Sahara and the arrival of a new people from the north, equipped with a revolutionary technology. Beginning around the third century CE, waves of nomadic Berber tribes began migrating south into the Mauritanian Adrar and Tagant plateaus. These were the Imazighen, the indigenous peoples of North Africa, likely pushed south in search of new pastures and to escape the political turmoil and conflicts associated with Roman rule in the Maghreb.

Their migration and subsequent dominance of the desert were made possible by the dromedary camel. Introduced to the Sahara around the 2nd century CE, the one-humped camel was the ultimate desert technology. Its ability to travel long distances with little water, to carry heavy loads, and to subsist on thorny desert plants transformed the Sahara from an impassable sea of sand into a network of highways for trade and conquest. The horse- and ox-drawn carts of earlier times were rendered obsolete. The Berbers, masters of camel husbandry, became the new masters of the desert.

The arrival of these warrior pastoralists fundamentally altered the social landscape. They encountered the remaining Bafour populations, and the interaction was often one of conflict and subjugation. Many Bafour were pushed further south, while others were absorbed or reduced to a vassal status, becoming a subordinate class in the emerging Berber-dominated society. The descendants of the Bafour are thought by some to be found among the modern Haratin class or the coastal Imraguen fishing community, though their precise lineage remains a subject of debate.

The Sanhadja Confederation and the Masters of the Salt Road

The Berber migrants were not a monolithic group but a collection of tribal confederations. Among the most powerful to settle in the Mauritanian sphere were the Sanhadja. This was a large grouping of tribes, and three of its components would become central to the region's history: the Lemtuna, the Godala, and the Massufa. The Lemtuna were known for their martial prowess and established their capital at Aoudaghost. The Godala controlled the coastal regions and the valuable Awlil salt deposits near the mouth of the Senegal River. Together, these tribes controlled the western arteries of the burgeoning trans-Saharan trade.

This trade was the lifeblood of the desert. The Berber caravans, sometimes numbering a thousand camels or more, would transport goods across the vast distances. From the north came Mediterranean luxury items, cloth, and, most importantly, salt. Salt was a precious commodity for the people of the Sudanic kingdoms to the south, essential for preserving food and maintaining health. In return, the southern kingdoms, most notably the powerful Ghana Empire, provided gold. The Berber tribes of Mauritania positioned themselves as the indispensable middlemen in this lucrative exchange.

Their pre-Islamic religious beliefs were diverse, reflecting a long history of cultural exchange. The foundational layer was a traditional faith that likely involved ancestor worship, the veneration of sacred natural sites like mountains and springs, and a recognition of various spirits. The sun and moon were particularly important deities. Over time, these indigenous beliefs were influenced by Punic traditions from Carthage and even the Roman pantheon, with the god Saturn being widely adopted. Judaism and Christianity also found adherents among the Berber tribes long before the arrival of Islam. This complex tapestry of belief underscored a society that was both fiercely independent and deeply connected to the wider currents of the ancient world.

Aoudaghost: The Berber City of Gold and Salt

The wealth generated by the trans-Saharan trade fueled the rise of prosperous city-states at the desert's edge. The most significant of these within Mauritania was Aoudaghost. Believed to be located at the archaeological site of Tegdaoust, Aoudaghost was founded by the Lemtuna Berbers and became a vital terminus on the caravan route linking Sijilmasa in the north with the Ghana Empire to the south.

By the 10th and 11th centuries, Aoudaghost had reached its zenith. The 11th-century Andalusian geographer Al-Bakri described it as a large, flourishing town, bustling with markets and surrounded by irrigated gardens of date palms, henna, and wheat fields. It was a place of considerable luxury, where cucumbers, figs, and grapes were cultivated and where the wealth derived from the gold and salt trade was conspicuously displayed. For a time, Aoudaghost was the most important commercial center in the Western Sahara, a meeting point between the cultures of the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa.

The city's relationship with its powerful southern neighbor, the Ghana Empire, was complex and shifted over time. Initially, Aoudaghost was an independent Berber stronghold whose king raided the lands of the Sudan. Its control over the salt trade made it indispensable to Ghana. However, by the late 10th or early 11th century, the expanding Ghana Empire had conquered Aoudaghost, making it a tributary city. Even under Ghanaian rule, it remained a largely Berber city, though its inhabitants were now subjects of a Black African empire. This created a tension that would not last. The stage was set for another monumental shift, as a new, unifying force was beginning to stir among the Sanhadja tribes in the deep desert—a puritanical religious movement that would not only reclaim Aoudaghost but would go on to forge an empire.