A History of Oaxaca

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The First Oaxacans: Pre-Ceramic Peoples and the Dawn of Agriculture
• Chapter 2 The Rise of Monte Albán: The Zapotec Heartland
• Chapter 3 Life and Society in the Classic Period: Splendor and Ritual at Monte Albán
• Chapter 4 The Mixtecs: Masters of Metallurgy and Manuscript Painting
• Chapter 5 The Decline of Monte Albán and the Rise of New Centers
• Chapter 6 The Arrival of the Mexica and the Eve of Conquest
• Chapter 7 The Spanish Conquest of Oaxaca: Resistance and Accommodation
• Chapter 8 Colonial Society: New Institutions, New Faiths
• Chapter 9 Land, Labor, and Tribute in the Colonial Era
• Chapter 10 The Indigenous Nobility under Spanish Rule
• Chapter 11 The Bourbon Reforms and Their Impact on Oaxaca
• Chapter 12 Oaxaca in the Mexican War of Independence
• Chapter 13 The Age of Benito Juárez: A Son of Oaxaca Forges a Nation
• Chapter 14 Liberalism, Conservatism, and Conflict in the 19th Century
• Chapter 15 The Porfiriato: Modernization and its Discontents in Oaxaca
• Chapter 16 The Mexican Revolution in the Oaxacan Context
• Chapter 17 Land Reform and the Post-Revolutionary State
• Chapter 18 The Mid-20th Century: Development and its Challenges
• Chapter 19 Indigenous Movements and the Struggle for Cultural Rights
• Chapter 20 The Teachers' Movement and Social Unrest in the Late 20th Century
• Chapter 21 The 2006 Uprising: A Turning Point for Oaxaca
• Chapter 22 Contemporary Oaxacan Society: A Mosaic of Cultures
• Chapter 23 Oaxacan Cuisine: A Culinary History
• Chapter 24 Art and Artisans: From Ancient Crafts to Modern Expressions
• Chapter 25 Oaxaca in the 21st Century: Globalization, Migration, and the Future

To speak of Oaxaca is to speak of a place where time seems to fold in on itself. Here, the scent of copal incense drifting from a colonial-era church mingles with the aroma of freshly ground corn for tortillas, a practice stretching back thousands of years. Brightly painted fantastical creatures, alebrijes, carved from copal wood, sit in workshops next to ancient looms where Zapotec weavers create intricate patterns that whisper stories of a pre-Hispanic universe. This is not a land of simple contrasts, of old versus new, but rather a complex tapestry where the threads of ancient civilizations, colonial encounters, and vibrant modernity are woven together so tightly they are inseparable. This book, A History of Oaxaca, endeavors to trace these threads, to understand how this unique corner of Mexico became what it is today: a cradle of civilizations, a crucible of conflict, and a global cultural epicenter.

The story of Oaxaca cannot be told without first understanding its geography, which is in many ways its destiny. Located in the southeastern part of Mexico, it is a land of dramatic and rugged beauty. Two great mountain ranges, the Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre del Sur, converge here, splintering the landscape into a dizzying array of high peaks, narrow canyons, and isolated valleys. This extreme geographic fragmentation has been one of the most powerful forces in its history. For millennia, this terrain acted as a formidable barrier, not only to outside invaders but also between the peoples within Oaxaca itself. The result is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse regions on the planet, a place where a journey of just a few miles can feel like entering an entirely new country. Today, sixteen distinct indigenous groups are officially recognized, each with its own language, customs, and traditions, though the linguistic reality is even more complex, with numerous dialects making communication between neighboring villages a challenge. This profound localism, this deep connection to one's village and community, is a theme that will recur throughout our history.

Long before the first Europeans set foot in the Americas, Oaxaca was a stage for grand civilizations. Evidence of human habitation dates back over 11,000 years, and it was in these fertile valleys that foundational crops like corn and squash were first domesticated, forming the agricultural bedrock of Mesoamerica. Out of this archaic dawn rose the Zapotecs, the "Cloud People," who, around 500 B.C., established their magnificent capital atop a flattened mountain overlooking three valleys: Monte Albán. For over a thousand years, Monte Albán was one of the most important urban centers in the Americas, a place of pyramids, palaces, and elaborate tombs, and a testament to the Zapotecs' sophisticated understanding of architecture, astronomy, and writing.

They were not alone. To the west, in the mountainous regions, lived the Mixtecs, renowned as master artisans. Their skill in metallurgy, particularly with gold, and their creation of intricate painted codices—screen-fold manuscripts that recorded their genealogies and histories—were unparalleled in ancient Mexico. The relationship between these two great peoples was complex, a shifting dance of conflict, competition, and intermarriage that defined the pre-Hispanic political landscape. The Mixtecs would eventually come to occupy Monte Albán after its decline, reusing its sacred tombs to bury their own elite. By the 15th century, a new power from the north, the formidable Aztec Empire, began to push into the region, establishing garrisons and demanding tribute, adding yet another layer to an already intricate world.

The arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s was not so much a singular event as the beginning of a long and often brutal negotiation. Hernán Cortés, hearing tales of gold, quickly sent his captains south. The conquest of Oaxaca was, however, different from the swift and total war that befell the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Here, the process was more piecemeal, a combination of violent suppression and strategic alliances. Some indigenous leaders, weary of Aztec domination, initially saw the Spanish as potential allies. The rugged terrain that had for so long kept Oaxacan peoples isolated from one another also made a unified Spanish military campaign difficult. The result was a colonial society built upon existing indigenous foundations, a world where Spanish institutions—the church, the hacienda, the bureaucracy—were laid over, and often forced to adapt to, deeply entrenched local power structures.

The Dominicans arrived in 1528, spearheading the spiritual conquest of the region. Churches were often built directly atop the foundations of pre-Hispanic temples, a stark physical symbol of the new order. Yet, this conversion was rarely total. Indigenous communities proved remarkably adept at weaving elements of their old faiths into the new Christian framework, creating a syncretic religion that persists to this day, visible in vibrant festivals that blend Catholic saints' days with ancestral rituals. For three centuries, Oaxaca was a key part of the Spanish Empire, prized for its production of cochineal, a brilliant red dye made from insects that was highly valued in Europe, and for its agricultural output. It was a society of stark inequalities, with a rigid class hierarchy that placed Spanish-born elites at the top, yet it was also a place where indigenous communities, through legal maneuvering and occasional rebellion, fought to maintain a degree of autonomy and control over their lands.

When the call for independence from Spain echoed across Mexico in the early 19th century, Oaxaca played a pivotal role. The province was initially loyal to the Spanish Crown, but insurgent leaders like Valerio Trujano soon roused the population, and the region became a key battleground in the long war for freedom. Independence, however, did not bring peace. The 19th century was a tumultuous era of ideological conflict between Liberals, who advocated for a federalist republic and the separation of church and state, and Conservatives, who sought a more centralized, traditional order. This national struggle was fiercely contested in Oaxaca, which, in a remarkable twist of fate, produced the two most significant and opposing figures of this era: Benito Juárez and Porfirio Díaz.

Benito Juárez, a Zapotec born in the mountain village of Guelatao, rose from humble origins to become a lawyer, governor of Oaxaca, and ultimately, Mexico's first and only indigenous president. An unwavering Liberal, he is revered as a national hero who championed the rule of law, resisted the French invasion of the 1860s, and laid the groundwork for a modern, secular state. His famous dictum, "Among individuals, as among nations, respect for the rights of others is peace," continues to resonate throughout Mexico and beyond. His protégé, and later his rival, was Porfirio Díaz, a mestizo from Oaxaca City who had been a brilliant military hero in the fight against the French. Díaz would eventually seize power and rule Mexico as a dictator for more than three decades in a period known as the Porfiriato. His regime brought modernization, railroad construction, and foreign investment, but it came at the cost of political freedom and deepened the immense inequality between a wealthy elite and the impoverished masses, setting the stage for the explosive conflict to come.

The Mexican Revolution of 1910–1920 manifested differently in Oaxaca than in the rest of the country. While the great revolutionary armies of the north clashed in epic battles, Oaxaca’s experience was more localized, a complex series of regional conflicts rooted in long-standing agrarian disputes and political rivalries. Various factions vied for control, and a "Sovereignty" movement even sought to establish Oaxaca as a separate entity from the rest of Mexico. The end of the revolution brought a new constitution and promises of land reform, but the process was slow and often fraught with conflict, as indigenous communities struggled to reclaim lands that had been lost over generations of colonial and Porfirian rule.

The 20th century saw Oaxaca increasingly integrated into the national economy, a process that brought both opportunities and profound challenges. The state became known as a reservoir of migrant labor, with Oaxacans leaving their villages to work in other parts of Mexico and, increasingly, in the United States. This mass migration transformed communities, introducing new ideas and economic pressures while also creating a vibrant diaspora that maintained strong ties to its ancestral homeland. Within Oaxaca, however, many of the old problems of poverty, inequality, and political exclusion persisted. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) maintained a tight grip on power for much of the century, often through authoritarian means.

This history of marginalization and resistance has made Oaxaca a fertile ground for social movements. The state has a long and powerful tradition of popular struggle, from indigenous rights organizations fighting for cultural recognition and autonomy to peasant groups demanding land and resources. Perhaps most famously, the state’s teachers’ union, Section 22, became a potent political force, known for its radical politics and its use of mass protests to demand better educational resources and challenge the authority of the state. These simmering tensions erupted in 2006, when a brutal police crackdown on a teachers' strike in the capital's central square, the Zócalo, ignited a massive popular uprising. For months, a broad-based coalition known as the Popular Assembly of the Peoples of Oaxaca (APPO) took control of the city, demanding the governor's resignation and a fundamental transformation of the political system. The 2006 rebellion was a watershed moment, exposing the deep fissures in Oaxacan society and placing its long history of struggle onto the international stage.

Yet, to focus solely on conflict and hardship would be to tell only half the story. For Oaxaca is also, and perhaps above all, a place of extraordinary creativity and cultural richness. It is widely considered the culinary capital of Mexico, a gastronomic paradise where ancient ingredients and techniques are celebrated. Its cuisine is a direct reflection of its biodiversity and its history, from the "sacred trinity" of corn, beans, and squash that sustained its first inhabitants to the complex and legendary seven moles, each a unique masterpiece of ground chiles, nuts, spices, and chocolate that speaks of a specific region's identity. The state is also the spiritual home of mezcal, the artisanal agave spirit whose smoky complexity tells a story of the land from which it came.

This creative spirit extends to its arts and crafts, which are renowned worldwide. The black pottery of San Bartolo Coyotepec, the intricate textiles of Teotitlán del Valle, the whimsical wooden alebrijes of San Martín Tilcajete—these are not mere souvenirs, but living traditions passed down through generations, each piece infused with the cultural memory of its community. This artistic legacy is on full display in the vibrant capital, Oaxaca de Juárez, a UNESCO World Heritage site where stunning colonial architecture houses world-class museums, art galleries, and bustling markets. And throughout the year, this culture is expressed in a calendar of vibrant festivals, from the ancient Zapotec celebration of Guelaguetza, a spectacular sharing of dance and tradition from across the state's diverse regions, to the profound and beautiful observances of the Day of the Dead.

This book will journey through these many Oaxacas, from the earliest hunter-gatherers in the Guilá Naquitz cave to the complex political and social landscape of the 21st century. It will explore the rise and fall of great civilizations, the trauma and transformation of the colonial period, the birth of national heroes, the long struggle for justice and dignity, and the incredible resilience of cultures that have not only survived but continue to flourish and enrich the world. The history of Oaxaca is a story of resistance and creativity, of deep roots and global connections. It is a microcosm of Mexican history and, at the same time, a place utterly, unmistakably unique. It is a story that is still being written, in the fields where heirloom corn is grown, in the workshops where artisans give shape to their dreams, and in the streets where its people continue to fight for their future.

Long before the first stone was laid at Monte Albán, before the Zapotec and Mixtec languages echoed through the valleys, the story of Oaxaca began with small, nomadic groups of people navigating a landscape dramatically different from that of today. The earliest chapters of human presence in this region are faint, inscribed not in books but on stone tools and in the remnants of ancient campfires. Archaeological evidence, particularly from sites like the Guilá Naquitz cave near Mitla, suggests human habitation in the Oaxaca Valley dating back at least 11,000 years. These first inhabitants were Paleo-Indians, hunter-gatherers who arrived during the late Pleistocene, an era when the climate was cooler and drier. They lived a life dictated by the seasons and the movement of game, a world without pottery, permanent villages, or the crops that would one day define Mesoamerican civilization.

These early Oaxacans lived in a landscape populated by now-extinct megafauna like mammoths, mastodons, and ancient species of horse. Their survival depended on an intimate knowledge of the environment. They hunted these large animals, but also relied heavily on smaller game and a wide array of wild plants. Small, mobile family groups, often called microbands, moved through the valleys and highlands, likely following predictable annual rounds. They sought shelter in caves and rock shelters, temporary homes that have become invaluable time capsules for modern archaeologists. Inside these shelters, such as Cueva Blanca and the Martínez Rockshelter, excavations have unearthed the tools of their daily existence: skillfully crafted stone projectile points, scrapers for cleaning hides, and grinding stones for processing seeds and nuts. The world they inhabited was richer in some respects than today's; the mountains near Mitla, for instance, supported pinyon pines, a species that no longer grows in Oaxaca.

This long era, known as the Archaic period (roughly 8000 to 2000 B.C.), was a time of gradual adaptation and innovation. As the massive Ice Age animals disappeared and the climate warmed, people became increasingly reliant on a diversified strategy of hunting smaller animals and gathering a broad spectrum of plants. The caves near Mitla reveal a diet that included acorns, mesquite seeds, hackberries, and the hearts of the maguey plant. These bands were not just passively collecting what nature offered; they were actively managing their resources, developing a deep understanding of plant life cycles. This period of intense interaction with the plant world set the stage for one of the most significant transformations in human history, one in which Oaxaca would play a leading role: the agricultural revolution.

The transition from foraging to farming was not a sudden event but a slow, tentative process spanning millennia. It began not with a staple grain, but with a humble gourd. In Guilá Naquitz cave, archaeologists have found seeds and rind fragments of Cucurbita pepo, a species of squash, that show clear signs of domestication. Using advanced radiocarbon dating techniques, these squash remains have been dated to as early as 8000 B.C. (10,000 years ago), making them the earliest evidence of plant domestication in the Americas. Interestingly, the initial interest in these plants may not have been for their flesh, but for their use as durable, lightweight containers. Another early domesticate was the bottle gourd, also valued for its utility as a vessel. The seeds of these early squashes were likely a valuable source of protein as well. This first step was revolutionary, marking a shift from simply taking what the environment provided to actively shaping it to meet human needs.

For thousands of years, these early experiments in cultivation supplemented a diet still largely based on hunting and gathering. The small, seasonal camps remained the primary form of settlement. But another, more profound agricultural breakthrough was taking shape. The wild ancestor of maize, a tall grass called teosinte, grew in the region. Teosinte bears little resemblance to modern corn; its "cobs" were tiny, just a few inches long, with a small number of kernels encased in a hard shell. Yet, through a remarkable process of human ingenuity and selective breeding, these early Oaxacans began to transform this wild grass into the cornerstone of Mesoamerican civilization.

The oldest directly dated maize cobs in the Americas were discovered in Guilá Naquitz cave. These primitive cobs, dating to around 4300 B.C., show the first critical signs of domestication: they had more rows of kernels than wild teosinte, and crucially, their seeds did not shatter and disperse on their own, making them dependent on humans for propagation. This achievement cannot be overstated. The development of maize was a feat of genetic engineering conducted over countless generations. It provided a reliable, storable, and calorie-rich food source that would eventually allow for the growth of permanent settlements, larger populations, and the complex societies that followed.

Alongside squash and maize, beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) also entered the agricultural repertoire, completing the powerful nutritional trio that would become known as the "Three Sisters". When grown together, these three crops create a symbiotic system. The corn stalks provide a natural trellis for the beans to climb, the beans fix nitrogen in the soil, enriching it for the other plants, and the broad leaves of the squash plant shade the ground, conserving moisture and preventing the growth of weeds. Eaten together, they provide a nearly complete protein, forming a sustainable agricultural and nutritional foundation that has supported the people of Oaxaca for thousands of years.

The slow, steady rise of agriculture during the late Archaic period began to reshape every aspect of life. As people invested more time and energy in tending their cultivated plants, their patterns of movement began to change. Small groups might stay in one place for an entire growing season to plant, tend, and harvest their crops. This increasing sedentism led to the establishment of the first small, permanent villages. By 2000 B.C., agriculture was firmly established in the Central Valleys, and settled village life had begun to take hold.

One of the earliest known villages in the valley is San José Mogote, which was established by around 1500 B.C. This site marks the beginning of a new era, the Formative period, characterized by pottery-making, permanent architecture, and growing social complexity. While the people of San José Mogote still supplemented their diet with wild plants and game, their subsistence was based on the maize that their ancestors had painstakingly developed over the preceding millennia. They began to construct more substantial houses and public buildings, a clear sign that they intended to stay. The appearance of pottery around this time was another crucial development, providing more efficient ways to store grain and water and to cook foods like beans, which are indigestible without boiling.

Other early settlements from this transitional period include Tierras Largas and Guadalupe. The pottery found at these sites shows influences from other emerging cultures in Mesoamerica, such as the Olmec on the Gulf Coast, indicating that even in these early stages, Oaxaca was not entirely isolated. An open-air ceremonial site from the Archaic period, Gheo-Shih, offers a tantalizing glimpse into the ritual life of these people. At the site, archaeologists discovered what appears to be a cleared dance ground, suggesting that communal rituals and social gatherings were taking place long before the construction of the first great temples.

This long pre-ceramic era, stretching from the first arrival of humans to the establishment of the first pottery-using villages, laid the entire foundation for the great civilizations to come. The hunter-gatherers of the Paleo-Indian and Archaic periods were the true pioneers of Oaxaca. They were master survivors who adapted to profound environmental changes and possessed a knowledge of their natural world that was both wide and deep. Their patient and observant cultivation of wild plants was not merely a technical achievement; it was a conceptual leap that fundamentally altered the human relationship with the land. It was this agricultural revolution, born in the dry caves and fertile valleys of ancient Oaxaca, that made possible the cities, the art, the calendars, and the kingdoms that would follow. The ghosts of these first Oaxacans are faint, but their legacy is written across the entire landscape, most vividly in the fields of maize that continue to sustain their descendants.