A History of South Sudan

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Land and Its People: An Ancient Heritage
• Chapter 2 Nilotic Migrations and the Emergence of Early Societies
• Chapter 3 The Turkana and the Rise of Egyptian Influence
• Chapter 4 The Funj Sultanate and the Spread of Islam
• Chapter 5 The Era of the Slave Trade and its Devastating Impact
• Chapter 6 Anglo-Egyptian Condominium: A New Colonial Order
• Chapter 7 Southern Policy and the Seeds of Division
• Chapter 8 The Rise of Nationalism and the First Sudanese Civil War
• Chapter 9 The Addis Ababa Agreement: A Fragile Peace
• Chapter 10 The Discovery of Oil and the Shifting Geopolitical Landscape
• Chapter 11 The Second Sudanese Civil War: A Generation of Conflict
• Chapter 12 The Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M): A New Resistance
• Chapter 13 The Role of International Actors and Humanitarian Intervention
• Chapter 14 The Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005
• Chapter 15 The Interim Period: Challenges of Governance and Reconstruction
• Chapter 16 The Road to Independence: The 2011 Referendum
• Chapter 17 Birth of a Nation: Hopes and Aspirations
• Chapter 18 Building State Institutions from Scratch
• Chapter 19 The Politics of Oil and Economic Development
• Chapter 20 Ethnic Identity and National Cohesion
• Chapter 21 The Outbreak of Civil War in 2013
• Chapter 22 The SPLM in Opposition and the Deepening Crisis
• Chapter 23 Regional Diplomacy and Peace Efforts
• Chapter 24 The Revitalised Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict
• Chapter 25 The Humanitarian Catastrophe and Displacement Crisis
• Chapter 26 The Role of Women in Conflict and Peacebuilding
• Chapter 27 Transitional Justice and National Reconciliation
• Chapter 28 The Formation of the Revitalised Transitional Government of National Unity
• Chapter 29 Persistent Challenges: Security Sector Reform and Economic Stability
• Chapter 30 South Sudan in the 21st Century: Future Prospects

The story of South Sudan is a testament to the enduring human spirit in the face of immense adversity. It is a narrative woven from the threads of ancient migrations, colonial subjugation, protracted and devastating civil wars, and the ultimate triumph of a people's decades-long struggle for self-determination. The birth of the Republic of South Sudan on July 9, 2011, was a moment of profound hope and jubilation, the culmination of a journey that had claimed millions of lives and displaced countless others. As the world's newest nation, it embarked on the monumental task of building a state from the ground up, a challenge compounded by a legacy of conflict and underdevelopment. This book, ‘A History of South Sudan,’ seeks to chronicle this arduous and often-painful journey, from its deep historical roots to the complexities of its contemporary existence.

Geographically, South Sudan is a land of dramatic contrasts, a vast expanse of lush savannas, immense swamplands, and tropical rainforests. Landlocked in East-Central Africa, it is bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, and the Central African Republic to the west. The White Nile flows through the heart of the country, its waters feeding the Sudd, one of the world's largest wetlands—a sprawling, labyrinthine ecosystem that has both sustained life and served as a formidable natural barrier throughout history. This diverse landscape is home to a rich tapestry of more than 60 distinct ethnic groups, each with its own unique language, culture, and traditions. The Dinka are the largest of these groups, followed by the Nuer, with other significant populations including the Zande, Bari, and Shilluk. For centuries, many of these societies were decentralized, their lives revolving around pastoralism and agriculture.

The recorded history of the region that is now South Sudan is one marked by external interference and exploitation. The 19th century witnessed the invasion of Turco-Egyptian forces under the Ottoman ruler Muhammad Ali, who sought to extract slaves and natural resources from the southern territories. This period was characterized by brutal slave raids that inflicted deep and lasting trauma on the societies of the south. Following the Mahdist Revolt, the late 19th century saw the establishment of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, which effectively brought the entire Sudan under British colonial administration. However, British policy often treated the north and south as separate entities, investing in the modernization of the predominantly Arab and Muslim north while largely neglecting the African, and increasingly Christian, south. This "Southern Policy" sowed the seeds of future conflict by exacerbating existing cultural and religious divides and creating a significant development gap between the two regions.

As Sudan approached independence in 1956, southern leaders' fears of being marginalized within a unified, Arab-dominated state intensified. These anxieties proved to be well-founded, and the failure to establish a federal system of government that would grant the south a degree of autonomy led to a mutiny by southern army officers in 1955, igniting the First Sudanese Civil War. This brutal conflict, which pitted southern insurgents, known as the Anya Nya, against the central government in Khartoum, lasted for 17 years and resulted in the deaths of an estimated half a million people. The Addis Ababa Agreement of 1972 brought a temporary cessation to the fighting, establishing the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region and offering a glimmer of hope for a lasting peace.

This fragile peace was shattered in 1983 when then-President Gaafar Nimeiry declared all of Sudan an Islamic state under Sharia law and unilaterally abolished the autonomous southern region. This act was the catalyst for the Second Sudanese Civil War, a conflict of even greater scale and devastation than the first. The newly formed Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M), under the leadership of Dr. John Garang, rose to challenge the authority of Khartoum. The second war raged for over two decades, becoming one of the longest and deadliest conflicts in African history, with an estimated 2.5 million fatalities and millions more displaced from their homes.

The relentless struggle of the South Sudanese people, combined with international pressure, eventually brought both sides to the negotiating table. The signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005 marked a watershed moment. This landmark accord not only ended the civil war but, crucially, enshrined the right of the southern Sudanese people to self-determination through a referendum to be held after a six-year interim period. In January 2011, this long-awaited referendum was held, and the outcome was an overwhelming vote for independence, with nearly 99 percent of southern Sudanese choosing to secede from the north.

The declaration of independence on July 9, 2011, was met with euphoria both within South Sudan and across the international community. However, the elation of newfound nationhood was quickly tempered by the immense challenges that lay ahead. The young country was saddled with a legacy of decades of war, including a virtually non-existent infrastructure, a population deeply scarred by violence, and an economy almost entirely dependent on oil revenues. The task of forging a national identity out of a mosaic of diverse ethnic groups, each with its own history and grievances, proved to be a formidable one.

Tragically, the promise of peace and prosperity was short-lived. In December 2013, just two years after independence, political tensions between President Salva Kiir and his former deputy, Riek Machar, erupted into open conflict. The ensuing civil war plunged the nation back into a cycle of violence, this time pitting South Sudanese against South Sudanese. The conflict took on a brutal ethnic dimension, further fracturing the fragile social fabric of the new nation. Despite the signing of a peace agreement in 2015 and a revitalized agreement in 2018, the path to a lasting peace has been fraught with obstacles and setbacks. The country continues to grapple with a severe humanitarian crisis, with widespread food insecurity, displacement, and ongoing localized violence.

This history of South Sudan is, therefore, a story of both immense suffering and remarkable resilience. It is a narrative that encompasses the complexities of identity, the legacy of colonialism, the devastating cost of conflict, and the enduring quest for a just and peaceful future. As we delve into the chapters that follow, we will explore the intricate details of this journey, from the ancient societies that first inhabited this land to the present-day challenges and hopes of the world's youngest nation. By understanding the historical forces that have shaped South Sudan, we can better appreciate the complexities of its present and the aspirations of its people for a future defined not by conflict, but by peace, stability, and the promise of a brighter tomorrow.

To understand the story of South Sudan, one must first understand the land itself. It is a landscape of profound influence, a physical stage upon which the country's long and dramatic history has unfolded. This is a realm where the rhythm of life has for millennia been dictated by the coming of the rains, the flooding of a great river, and the vastness of the savanna. It is an environment that has shaped the diverse cultures of the people who call it home, forging their traditions, their economies, and their very identities. From the soaring peaks of the Imatong Mountains to the seemingly endless expanse of the Sudd wetland, the geography of South Sudan is as diverse and complex as the human mosaic it cradles.

Nestled in East-Central Africa, the Republic of South Sudan is a landlocked nation defined by its plains, highlands, and the life-giving artery of the White Nile. The landscape is predominantly one of vast plains and plateaus, which rise to highlands in the south along the border with Uganda and Kenya. In the far southeast, the Imatong Mountains stretch into Uganda, containing South Sudan's highest point, Mount Kinyeti, which stands at 3,187 meters (10,456 feet). These mountains, formed of ancient crystalline rock, rise sharply from the surrounding plains and are the source of numerous year-round rivers that carve through the terrain. The climate is overwhelmingly tropical, characterized by a hot, humid rainy season, generally from April to October, followed by a hotter, drier period. This annual cycle of rain and sun governs all aspects of life, from planting and harvesting to the seasonal migration of people and animals.

The single most dominant geographical feature of the country is the White Nile, known as the Bahr el Jebel or "Mountain Nile" as it enters South Sudan from Uganda. The river serves as the country's main artery, flowing south to north through its heartland. North of the capital, Juba, the river's gradient flattens dramatically as it enters a vast, shallow depression, creating one of the world's largest wetlands: the Sudd. The name comes from the Arabic word for "barrier" or "obstruction," a fitting description for a labyrinth of swamps, lagoons, and floating vegetation that has historically proven to be a formidable obstacle to river navigation.

This immense wetland, which can expand to cover an area the size of England during the peak of the flood season, is a crucial ecosystem. It is a haven for biodiversity, supporting over 400 species of birds, including the iconic shoebill and the great white pelican, and more than 100 species of mammals. The Sudd's grasslands and swamps provide vital dry-season grazing for the livestock of the surrounding communities and support a large fish population that is a key source of protein. For centuries, this sprawling, impenetrable swamp also served as a natural fortress, isolating the southern regions from the outside world and hindering the advance of invaders and traders from the north. However, the Sudd is also a place where the White Nile loses nearly half of its water to evaporation, a significant factor in the hydrology of the entire Nile basin.

The diverse landscape of South Sudan is home to an equally diverse array of flora and fauna. The country's vegetation ranges from savanna grasslands with thorny acacia trees in the drier northern parts to lush, high-rainfall savannas and tropical forests in the southern and central regions. These habitats support a remarkable concentration of wildlife. South Sudan hosts one of the largest animal migrations on earth, a spectacle involving over a million white-eared kob, tiang, and Mongalla gazelle that trek across the eastern plains. The country's national parks, such as Boma, Southern, and Bandingilo, are home to iconic African megafauna including elephants, giraffes, African buffalo, lions, and leopards. This rich natural heritage represents both a significant cultural treasure and a potential foundation for a future tourism industry, though it has been severely threatened by decades of conflict and illegal hunting.

The human landscape of South Sudan is a rich tapestry woven from more than 60 distinct ethnic groups, each with its own language, customs, and ancient traditions. These societies have been shaped by the land they inhabit, developing unique ways of life adapted to its challenges and opportunities. The majority of the population can be classified within the Nilotic linguistic group, so named for their close association with the Nile River basin. Among them, two peoples stand out for their demographic size and historical influence: the Dinka and the Nuer.

The Dinka, who refer to themselves as the Jieng, are the largest ethnic group in South Sudan. Primarily a pastoralist people, their entire culture revolves around cattle. For the Dinka, cattle are not merely a source of food or economic wealth; they are the bedrock of social status, the currency of marriage through bride-wealth, and a central element in their religious and spiritual lives. They have more than 400 words to describe cattle, detailing their colors, markings, and horn shapes. Traditionally semi-nomadic, the Dinka follow a seasonal rhythm, moving their herds to riverside pastures during the dry season and returning to permanent settlements on higher ground to cultivate crops like sorghum and millet during the rains. Their society is decentralized, organized into many independent but interconnected patrilineal clans, with spiritual leadership historically provided by "masters of the fishing spear," who hold a position of religious authority.

Closely related to the Dinka in language and culture are the Nuer, or Naath, the second-largest ethnic group. Like the Dinka, the Nuer are semi-nomadic pastoralists whose lives are inextricably linked to their cattle. Cattle are a symbol of wealth and social standing and are central to their cultural identity, with men often taking the names of their favorite oxen. Nuer society is also traditionally decentralized, lacking a single centralized political authority and organized around a patrilineal clan system. They too move with the seasons, occupying villages on higher ground during the rainy season and moving to temporary camps near rivers and other water sources when the land is dry. Their religious beliefs traditionally center on a creator god, Kwoth, as well as various earth and sky spirits, though Christianity has made significant inroads.

While the decentralized, pastoral societies of the Dinka and Nuer are characteristic of much of South Sudan, they are not the only model of social organization. The Shilluk, or Chollo, who are the country's third-largest ethnic group, present a fascinating contrast. Concentrated along a fertile strip of land on the west bank of the White Nile, the Shilluk are more sedentary agriculturalists than pastoralists. Their most distinctive feature is their highly centralized and ancient political structure: a kingdom. For centuries, the Shilluk have been united under a single divine king, the Reth, who is believed to be the reincarnation of their founding culture hero, Nyikang. The Reth is the symbol of Shilluk unity and his well-being is considered essential for the prosperity of the land. This kingdom is one of the oldest and most resilient indigenous monarchies in Africa, with a complex political organization of chiefs and councils that govern the Shilluk lands.

In the lush, forested regions of the south, particularly in Western Equatoria, live the Azande. The name Azande means "the people who possess much land," a nod to their history as powerful conquerors who established kingdoms in the 18th and 19th centuries. Unlike the Nilotic pastoralists of the plains, the Azande are primarily agriculturalists, cultivating crops like maize, millet, and cassava in the fertile forest soil. They have a long history of skilled craftsmanship, particularly in iron and wood. Traditionally, their society was organized into various chiefdoms under noble clans. Azande traditional belief is complex and includes a belief in a supreme being, Mbori, alongside a well-documented system of beliefs surrounding witchcraft, oracles, and magic which permeates daily life.

Another significant group, the Bari, are settled in the savanna lands around the capital city, Juba. They speak an Eastern Sudanic language and have traditionally practiced a mixed economy of millet cultivation and cattle herding. Bari society is organized into clans and was historically divided into a class of freemen and a smaller servant class. They share cultural and linguistic traits with several neighboring peoples, including the Kakwa, Mundari, and Kuku.

Beyond these larger groups, the country is home to a multitude of other peoples, each contributing to the nation's cultural diversity. In the east, the Murle, Anuak, and Toposa inhabit the lands bordering Ethiopia. The Lotuko and Acholi live in the southern highlands of the Imatong Mountains. Each of these societies has its own unique social structures, economic practices, and spiritual beliefs, shaped over centuries of life in their particular environments.

The economic foundations of these ancient societies were built directly upon the resources the land provided. Pastoralism, particularly cattle-keeping, has long been the backbone of many communities, providing milk, blood, and hides, and serving as the primary measure of wealth and the basis for social contracts like marriage. Agriculture was equally vital, with sorghum and millet being the staple food crops, their cultivation timed to the annual rains. In the riverine areas and the Sudd, fishing provided a critical source of food, while foraging for wild fruits, nuts, and roots supplemented the diets of many.

Before the significant arrival of Christianity and Islam, the indigenous peoples of South Sudan held a variety of complex spiritual beliefs. Most traditional religions shared a concept of a supreme being or creator god, often seen as distant from the everyday affairs of humanity. More immediate concerns were the spirits of ancestors and the spirits of the natural world, which were believed to influence health, fertility, and prosperity. Diviners, prophets, and other spiritual leaders acted as intermediaries, interpreting the will of the spirits and presiding over rituals and sacrifices intended to maintain cosmic balance and ensure the well-being of the community.

Social life was almost universally organized around the principles of kinship. The family, the lineage, and the clan were the fundamental units of society, defining an individual's rights, responsibilities, and alliances. In the decentralized societies, governance was often managed by councils of elders, who would adjudicate disputes and make decisions for the community based on custom and consensus. Among some groups, age-set systems created strong bonds of solidarity among men who were initiated into adulthood together, forming a cohort with social and military responsibilities for the rest of their lives. In these societies without written records, history, genealogy, and cultural values were preserved and transmitted through a rich oral tradition of stories, songs, and epic poems. This land, with its dramatic seasons and powerful river, was the cradle of these ancient cultures, nurturing a diverse and resilient population whose deep heritage continues to shape the identity of the world's youngest nation.