A History of Togo

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Land and its Earliest Inhabitants
• Chapter 2 Pre-Colonial Kingdoms and Societies: The Ewe, Kabye, and others
• Chapter 3 The Transatlantic Slave Trade and its Impact on the Togoland Coast
• Chapter 4 The Arrival of European Missionaries and Traders
• Chapter 5 The Scramble for Africa and the Establishment of German Togoland
• Chapter 6 German Colonial Rule: Infrastructure, Economy, and Resistance
• Chapter 7 World War I and the Anglo-French Invasion of Togoland
• Chapter 8 The League of Nations Mandate: British and French Togoland
• Chapter 9 Togolese Nationalism and the Rise of Political Parties
• Chapter 10 The 1956 Plebiscite and the Division of Togoland
• Chapter 11 The Path to Independence: Sylvanus Olympio and the Comité de l'Unité Togolaise
• Chapter 12 Independence and the First Republic: Hopes and Challenges
• Chapter 13 The 1963 Coup d'état and the Assassination of Sylvanus Olympio
• Chapter 14 The Grunitzky Government and Continued Political Instability
• Chapter 15 The Rise of Gnassingbé Eyadéma: The 1967 Coup
• Chapter 16 The Eyadéma Years: Building a One-Party State
• Chapter 17 Economy and Society under Eyadéma's Rule
• Chapter 18 The Pro-Democracy Movement of the Early 1990s
• Chapter 19 The Sovereign National Conference and the Tumultuous Transition
• Chapter 20 The Contested Elections of the 1990s and 2000s
• Chapter 21 The Death of Eyadéma and the Succession of Faure Gnassingbé
• Chapter 22 Political Reforms and Protests in the 21st Century
• Chapter 23 Togo's Contemporary Economy: Phosphates, Agriculture, and the Port of Lomé
• Chapter 24 Togolese Culture, Arts, and Religion in the Modern Era
• Chapter 25 Togo in the 21st Century: Challenges and Future Prospects

To look at a map of West Africa is to see a collection of states whose shapes tell stories of colonial ambition, geographic convenience, and ethnographic indifference. Among them, the Togolese Republic presents a particularly curious outline. It is a mere sliver of a country, a long, narrow corridor of land running north from the Atlantic Ocean, squeezed between Ghana to the west and Benin to the east, with Burkina Faso capping its northern frontier. At its widest, it spans no more than 115 kilometers, yet it stretches over 550 kilometers from the sandy beaches of the Gulf of Guinea to the arid savannas of the Sahelian belt. This peculiar shape is not the result of ancient kingdoms expanding along a trade route, nor does it follow the contours of a great river. Instead, it is the direct legacy of a brief but impactful period of German colonization and a subsequent, almost casual, division by victorious Allied powers after the First World War. The borders that define Togo today are lines drawn on a map in Europe, lines that sliced through established communities and linguistic groups, most notably the Ewe people, creating a geopolitical reality that has shaped the nation's destiny ever since.

This book, ‘A History of Togo,’ seeks to unravel the complex and often dramatic story packed within this slender territory. It is a history that predates the name "Togo" itself—a word derived from the Ewe language, meaning "behind the river" or "by the water's edge," originally referring to a small coastal settlement that lent its name to an entire German colony. Before European powers arrived to chart its destiny, the land that is now Togo was a vibrant mosaic of peoples and cultures. Archaeological evidence suggests that its earliest inhabitants were capable of producing sophisticated pottery and processing iron. Over centuries, from the 11th century onwards, waves of migration brought various groups into the region. The Ewe settled in the south and west, the Mina and Guin arrived from the east, and numerous other groups established themselves in the central hills and northern savannas, creating a rich tapestry of societies that had little contact with one another. These were the kingdoms and communities—of the Kabye, the Kotokoli, the Gurma, and others—that would eventually be brought together under a single, foreign administration.

The arrival of the Portuguese in the late 15th century heralded a new and brutal era. For the next three centuries, the coastal region became a central hub of the transatlantic slave trade. It formed a notorious part of a larger area that Europeans starkly named "The Slave Coast," a place from which hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas. This trade in human lives irrevocably altered the societies it touched, fostering conflict, reshaping power dynamics among local kingdoms, and leaving a legacy of trauma and displacement that echoes to this day. The fortified trading posts and slave markets that dotted the coast were the primary points of contact between Africa and Europe, a relationship founded on exploitation and violence that would set the stage for the next phase of European intervention: colonization.

The formal colonial story of Togo begins not with the early Portuguese traders, but with the late-arriving Germans during the "Scramble for Africa." In 1884, the German government, through its emissary Gustav Nachtigal, coerced a local chief, Mlapa III of Togoville, into signing a treaty of protection. This small coastal protectorate was gradually expanded inland through military expeditions and further treaties with Britain and France, and by 1905 it had become the German colony of Togoland. Germany was determined to make Togoland its Musterkolonie, or model colony. To this end, the colonial administration invested heavily in infrastructure, building railways and the deep-water port of Lomé to facilitate the export of cash crops like coffee, cocoa, and cotton. This development, however, was built on a foundation of forced labor, harsh taxation, and brutal punishment, a reality far removed from the pristine image of a "model" possession projected back in Europe.

Germany's colonial ambitions in Africa were short-lived. With the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, British and French forces from the neighboring Gold Coast and Dahomey invaded Togoland. The small German contingent was swiftly defeated, and the colony surrendered within weeks. The territory was placed under joint Anglo-French military rule until 1916, when it was formally partitioned into British and French zones. This division was solidified in 1922 when the League of Nations granted mandates to Britain and France to administer their respective territories. France received the larger eastern two-thirds, including the entire coastline and the capital, Lomé, while Britain took control of the less developed western portion. This act of division formalized the separation of the Ewe people, a wound in the cultural fabric of the region that would fuel unification movements for decades and continues to strain relations between Togo and Ghana.

The interwar period under the mandate system saw the two Togolands develop along divergent colonial paths. British Togoland was administered as part of the Gold Coast, adopting English as its official language and aligning its institutions with British colonial models. French Togoland, meanwhile, was drawn deeper into the orbit of French West Africa, with French becoming the language of administration and its economy tied to French interests. It was in this period of dual colonial rule that the seeds of modern Togolese nationalism were sown. A new, educated elite began to emerge, advocating for greater autonomy and, eventually, for independence. The central figure in this movement was Sylvanus Olympio, a charismatic and London-educated businessman who would become the leading voice for Togolese self-determination. His party, the Comité de l'Unité Togolaise (CUT), campaigned tirelessly against French rule and for the reunification of the two Togolands.

The post-World War II era accelerated the push for decolonization across Africa. The United Nations replaced the League of Nations, and the mandates became UN Trust Territories. The question of the two Togolands' future became a pressing international issue. The UN supervised a plebiscite in British Togoland in 1956 to decide its fate. Despite the wishes of many Ewe nationalists who sought reunification with their counterparts in the French zone, a majority of residents voted to integrate with the Gold Coast, which became the independent nation of Ghana in 1957. This decision permanently sealed the colonial division, leaving French Togoland to chart its own course. Four years later, on April 27, 1960, the French territory gained its sovereignty, and the Republic of Togo was born, with Sylvanus Olympio as its first president.

The euphoria of independence, however, proved to be tragically brief. Olympio's presidency was fraught with challenges, including economic difficulties and political tensions with Ghana over the unification issue. His austere fiscal policies and his decision to maintain a very small military created discontent. This discontent boiled over on January 13, 1963, when a group of disgruntled army veterans who had served in the French military staged a coup d'état. President Olympio was assassinated outside the gates of the American embassy, a shocking event that marked the first military overthrow of an elected leader in post-colonial sub-Saharan Africa. The coup sent shockwaves across the continent, casting a dark shadow over the promise of Africa's new era of independence and setting a grim precedent for the political instability that would plague many nations in the decades to come.

The assassination of Olympio ushered in a long period of political turbulence. The military installed Nicolas Grunitzky, Olympio's political rival and brother-in-law, as president, but his government was weak and failed to establish lasting stability. Four years later, in 1967, the same officer who was widely credited with firing the shot that killed Olympio, Sergeant Étienne Eyadéma (later Gnassingbé Eyadéma), led another bloodless coup. This time, the military did not hand over power. Eyadéma seized the presidency for himself, launching a period of authoritarian rule that would last for thirty-eight years, making him one of Africa's longest-serving dictators. He established a one-party state, suppressed all dissent, and built an extensive cult of personality. His long reign brought a degree of stability and economic development, particularly in the phosphate industry and the Port of Lomé, but it came at the cost of political freedom and human rights.

The winds of change that swept across Africa in the early 1990s with the end of the Cold War did not spare Togo. A powerful pro-democracy movement emerged, challenging Eyadéma's grip on power. This culminated in a Sovereign National Conference in 1991, which stripped the president of his powers and appointed a transitional government. However, Eyadéma, with the unwavering loyalty of the military, fought back. The 1990s were a tumultuous decade of strikes, violent protests, and contested elections, as Eyadéma skillfully outmaneuvered the fragmented opposition to reclaim and consolidate his authority.

The death of Gnassingbé Eyadéma in 2005 marked the end of an era, but not the end of the family's rule. In a move that was widely condemned as a constitutional coup, the military installed his son, Faure Gnassingbé, as president. Bowing to intense domestic and international pressure, Faure Gnassingbé agreed to hold elections, which he won amidst accusations of fraud and widespread violence that forced tens of thousands to flee the country. Since taking power, he has navigated a complex political landscape, implementing some reforms while facing persistent protests and calls for a genuine democratic transition. His presidency has brought Togo back from international isolation and has overseen steady economic growth, yet the fundamental questions of democratic governance and the legacy of his father's long rule continue to shape the nation's present and future.

This book will journey through these distinct and dramatic chapters of Togo's history. It will explore the land and its diverse peoples before the imposition of colonial borders. It will delve into the profound impact of the slave trade and the unique nature of German colonial rule. It will trace the painful story of partition and the subsequent struggles for independence and reunification. The narrative will then move through the turbulent decades of post-colonial history, from the hopeful dawn of the Olympio years to the violent coup that ended them, through the long, iron-fisted reign of Gnassingbé Eyadéma, and into the complex contemporary era of his son's presidency. Beyond the politics, the book will also touch upon the economic forces that have shaped the nation, from its agricultural backbone to its vital phosphate reserves, and the enduring richness of its cultural and religious life, where traditional Vodun beliefs coexist with Christianity and Islam. The history of Togo is the story of a nation forged in the crucible of external pressures and internal struggles, a small country with a history as deep, complex, and compelling as any of its larger neighbors.

To comprehend the history of Togo, one must first understand its geography, a determining factor in the settlement of its peoples, the flow of its commerce, and the strategic considerations of its invaders. The nation is a narrow strip of land, wedged between Ghana and Benin, stretching approximately 579 kilometers north from the Gulf of Guinea. At its widest point, it is merely 160 kilometers across. This compact territory, however, contains a surprising diversity of landscapes, traditionally divided into six distinct geographic regions.

The journey north begins at the coast, a 56-kilometer-long stretch of sandy beaches and lagoons on the Bight of Benin. This Maritime Region is a low-lying area of tidal flats and shallow bodies of water, the largest of which is Lake Togo. It is the most populous and smallest region by area, home to the capital city, Lomé. Moving inland, the terrain rises to the Ouatchi Plateau, a belt of reddish, iron-rich soil known as terre de barre, extending about 32 kilometers with an elevation of 60 to 90 meters. This gives way to a higher tableland, drained by the country's longest river, the Mono, which runs 400 kilometers from north to south, and its tributaries.

The center of the country is bisected by the Togo Mountains, a chain of hills running from the southwest near the Ghanaian border to the northeast. This range, which is part of the same formation known as the Akwapim Hills in Ghana and the Atakora Mountains in Benin, is where Togo reaches its highest point, Mont Agou, at 986 meters. North of these mountains, the landscape opens into a rolling savanna plateau, characterized by the Oti River, a major tributary of the Volta. The far north, the Savanes Region, is a higher expanse of granite and gneiss, featuring the dramatic cliffs of Dapaong.

Togo’s climate is tropical, governed by the seasonal shifts of the West African Monsoon. The south experiences two rainy seasons, from mid-April to June and again from mid-September to October. Curiously, the immediate coastal zone is the driest part of the country, receiving about 890 millimeters of rain annually, while the area around Palimé, further inland in the mountains, receives the most, with up to 1,800 millimeters. The northern regions have a single rainy season from June to late September, followed by a long dry season dominated by the warm, dust-laden Harmattan wind that blows from the northeast. Average temperatures range from 23°C on the coast to 30°C in the far north.

This varied geography supports a range of vegetation. The predominant landscape is savanna, with large trees like the baobab common on the southern plateaus but rarer in the north. The southwestern highlands are home to tropical forests, which also line the river valleys. The coast is marked by mangrove and reed swamps. While not abundant, wildlife includes lions, elephants, and leopards in the north, along with numerous monkeys, snakes, and lizards throughout the country. Crocodiles and hippos are common in the rivers. The nation's protected areas, including Fazao-Malfakassa and Kéran National Parks, serve as important sanctuaries for this biodiversity.

The story of human settlement in what is now Togo stretches deep into prehistory. Archaeological finds across the country confirm a long and continuous human presence. Surveys and excavations have unearthed significant material remains, from the Late Stone Age to the advent of ironworking. In the northern Oti prefecture, evidence of early habitation includes stone tools, rock paintings, and the remnants of early iron smelting operations. Similarly, the central Binah and Kozah regions have yielded terracotta figurines and evidence of complex spiritual practices tied to settled communities with metallurgical skills.

The Iron Age left a particularly strong mark on the land. Togo is rich in archaeological sites that reveal a sophisticated knowledge of producing pottery and processing iron. The Bassar region, in particular, emerged as a major center of iron production. Archaeological research indicates that ironworking began here as early as the 5th century BCE. After a long interval, the industry saw a period of intensive activity from the late 13th to the early 20th century, producing an estimated 50,000 tons of iron that was traded across the region. The ancient metallurgy sites of Bassar are now on Togo's tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage status. Another important iron production center was Tado, which was active from the 12th to the 14th centuries CE. These early industries point to organized societies with specialized craft skills and extensive trade networks long before the arrival of Europeans.

Little is known with certainty about the specific ethnic identities of these earliest inhabitants. Before the major migrations that shaped the country's modern demographics, it is believed that various indigenous groups, often referred to as proto-Ewe or Guan-speaking peoples, were scattered throughout the region. The population of the central mountains is considered by some researchers to be the oldest in Togo, with evidence dating the presence of the Tchamba and Bassar peoples as far back as the ninth century. Peoples like the Adele, whose traditions speak of a descent from the sky, and the Akebu, who developed their own local chieftaincies, are considered among the original inhabitants.

Between the 11th and 16th centuries, waves of migration began to form the ethnic mosaic of modern Togo. Various tribes entered the region from all directions. The Ewe migrated from the east, likely from the region of present-day Nigeria, while the Mina and Guin arrived from what is now Ghana to the west. Most of these groups settled in the south, particularly along the coast. The Ewe, who would become the dominant ethnic group in the south, have a detailed oral history of their migration from the walled city of Notsé, where they were ruled by a tyrannical king named Agokoli. According to tradition, the Ewe escaped the city's oppressive rule by softening a section of the mud wall with water over a long period, eventually breaking through to freedom. The historic earthen walls of Notsé still exist, a testament to this foundational story in Ewe identity.

The northern parts of the country were settled by different groups, primarily Gur-speaking peoples migrating from the north and west, in the area of modern Burkina Faso. These include the Gurma, Konkomba, Tamberma (also known as Batammariba), Moba, and the Kabye, who are now the second-largest ethnic group in Togo. The Kabye are known for their sophisticated terraced farming techniques in the mountainous Kara region. The Tamberma, who live in the Koutammakou region, are famous for their unique mud tower-houses, known as takienta. These fortified structures, which often have two stories and thatched roofs, were designed for defense and reflect a deep connection between the people, their architecture, and the surrounding landscape. The Koutammakou cultural landscape is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its exceptional traditional architecture.

These various groups, who today constitute a nation of about 30 distinct ethnic groups, had little contact with one another before the colonial era. They were organized into villages and, in some cases, small kingdoms. The mountainous terrain in the center of the country served as a natural barrier, isolating the northern and southern populations. For centuries, the peoples of this land lived in relatively self-contained societies, their histories shaped by the immediate rhythms of their environment, the fertility of their soil, and the security of their settlements, long before the lines on a European map would bind their diverse destinies into a single, slender nation called Togo.