A History of Taiwan

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 Prehistoric Taiwan: The Austronesian Homeland
• Chapter 2 Early Inhabitants and Indigenous Cultures
• Chapter 3 The Age of Exploration: European Encounters
• Chapter 4 The Dutch and Spanish Colonial Era
• Chapter 5 The Kingdom of Tungning: Koxinga and the Ming Loyalists
• Chapter 6 Qing Dynasty Rule: Frontier Expansion and Han Migration
• Chapter 7 Society and Culture under Qing Rule
• Chapter 8 The Rise of Local Identity and Resistance
• Chapter 9 The First Sino-Japanese War and the Cession of Taiwan
• Chapter 10 The Republic of Formosa: A Short-Lived Resistance
• Chapter 11 Japanese Colonial Rule: Modernization and Assimilation
• Chapter 12 The Seeds of Taiwanese Nationalism
• Chapter 13 World War II and the End of Japanese Rule
• Chapter 14 The Arrival of the Kuomintang and the 228 Incident
• Chapter 15 The White Terror: Martial Law and Political Suppression
• Chapter 16 Land Reform and Economic Development in the Post-War Era
• Chapter 17 The "Taiwan Miracle": Export-Oriented Growth
• Chapter 18 Cold War Politics: The ROC on Taiwan and the UN
• Chapter 19 The Kaohsiung Incident and the Rise of the Dangwai Movement
• Chapter 20 The Lifting of Martial Law and the Path to Democracy
• Chapter 21 The Lee Teng-hui Era: "Taiwanization" and Constitutional Reform
• Chapter 22 The First Peaceful Transfer of Power: The 2000 Presidential Election
• Chapter 23 Cross-Strait Relations in the 21st Century
• Chapter 24 Contemporary Taiwanese Society: Identity, Culture, and Social Movements
• Chapter 25 Taiwan's Role in the Indo-Pacific and the Challenges Ahead

At a glance, Taiwan presents a picture of vibrant modernity. Its cities pulse with energy, their skylines punctuated by architectural marvels like Taipei 101. It is a global economic powerhouse, a leader in technological innovation, and a bastion of democratic ideals in a region often defined by authoritarianism. Yet, beneath this dynamic surface lies a history of extraordinary complexity and depth, a story of successive migrations, colonial occupations, and a relentless quest for identity. This book, A History of Taiwan, seeks to unravel the many-layered past of an island whose strategic importance and unique cultural journey have long captured the world's attention.

Long before the arrival of European explorers or Han settlers, Taiwan was inhabited by peoples who had lived there for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence suggests human habitation stretching back at least 25,000 years. Around 6,000 years ago, a pivotal shift occurred with the appearance of agricultural societies. These newcomers are widely believed to be the ancestors of Taiwan's current indigenous peoples and, remarkably, the progenitors of the vast Austronesian language family. It is from this "beautiful island," as it would later be called, that a great human migration began, a seaborne expansion that would eventually populate a vast expanse of the globe, from Madagascar to Easter Island, the Philippines to New Zealand. This ancient heritage forms the foundational layer of Taiwanese identity, a deep-rooted connection to the land that predates all subsequent arrivals.

The island's recorded history, however, often begins with a name bestowed by outsiders. In the 16th century, Portuguese sailors, navigating the treacherous waters of the East Asian coast, were struck by the island's lush, mountainous beauty and marked it on their maps as Ilha Formosa—the "Beautiful Island." This name would persist in Western literature for centuries, a testament to the island's captivating allure. But beauty also made it a prize. Its strategic location, commanding vital trade routes in the Asia-Pacific, ensured that it would not remain isolated for long.

The 17th century saw the arrival of the first colonial powers. The Dutch East India Company established a profitable trading post in the southwest in 1624, while the Spanish set up a short-lived outpost in the north. The Dutch encouraged the first large-scale migration of Han Chinese settlers from the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong to work the island's fertile plains. This period marked the beginning of a profound demographic and cultural shift. In 1662, the Dutch were expelled by Zheng Chenggong, known in the West as Koxinga, a Ming Dynasty loyalist fleeing the Manchu conquest of mainland China. He established the Kingdom of Tungning, a short-lived but historically significant Han Chinese state that further cemented the island's connection to the Chinese cultural sphere.

Koxinga's kingdom lasted only two decades before it was conquered by the Qing Dynasty in 1683. For the next two hundred years, Taiwan was a frontier territory of the Qing empire. Though the imperial court in Beijing often regarded it as a troublesome and remote outpost, Han migration continued, often illegally, pushing further into indigenous territories and transforming the island's social fabric. This era was characterized by frequent uprisings and a growing sense of a distinct society, forged in the crucible of the frontier and separated from the mainland by the formidable Taiwan Strait.

The end of the 19th century brought another dramatic turn. Following its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Qing government ceded Taiwan to Japan in perpetuity under the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki. The cession was met with resistance, culminating in the declaration of the short-lived Republic of Formosa, a defiant but ultimately doomed attempt at self-determination. The ensuing fifty years of Japanese colonial rule were transformative. Japan invested heavily in the island's infrastructure, building railways, modernizing agriculture, and eradicating diseases. This period of rapid industrialization and modernization came at the cost of a strict assimilation policy, yet it also inadvertently fostered a sense of shared Taiwanese identity, distinct from that of both Japan and mainland China.

World War II brought an end to Japanese rule, but peace did not bring the autonomy many Taiwanese had hoped for. In 1945, control of the island was handed to the Republic of China (ROC), led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang (KMT). Mismanagement and corruption by the new administration bred widespread resentment, which exploded in the 228 Incident of 1947, a brutal crackdown that resulted in the deaths of thousands and left a deep scar on Taiwanese society. Two years later, the KMT lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to Taiwan, bringing with them the entire ROC government and some 1.2 million soldiers and civilians.

What followed was nearly four decades of martial law known as the "White Terror." The KMT ruled Taiwan as a single-party authoritarian state, suppressing dissent while claiming to be the sole legitimate government of all of China. Yet, this era of political repression coincided with a period of stunning economic growth. Through land reform and an export-oriented strategy, Taiwan transformed itself from a poor agricultural society into an industrial powerhouse—a transformation hailed as the "Taiwan Miracle." This economic success, however, was accompanied by diplomatic isolation, particularly after the ROC lost its United Nations seat to the People's Republic of China in 1971.

The seeds of democracy, sown in defiance of authoritarian rule, began to sprout in the 1970s and 80s. The "Dangwai" (outside the party) movement challenged the KMT's monopoly on power, culminating in events like the 1979 Kaohsiung Incident, which saw the arrest of many opposition leaders but also galvanized the public's demand for change. The gradual process of reform accelerated, leading to the lifting of martial law in 1987. The subsequent years saw a flurry of constitutional reforms and the blossoming of a vibrant civil society. This democratic transition reached a crucial milestone in 1996 with the first direct presidential election, followed in 2000 by the first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party.

Today, Taiwan stands as a testament to the resilience of its people. It is a thriving, pluralistic democracy, grappling with the profound questions of identity, sovereignty, and its relationship with the People's Republic of China, which continues to claim the island as a breakaway province. Its unique geopolitical position places it at the center of global strategic calculations, while its indispensable role in the world's high-tech supply chain, particularly in semiconductor manufacturing, gives it an outsized economic influence.

The story of Taiwan is one of convergence and divergence, of continuity and rupture. It is the story of its indigenous peoples, of Han pioneers, of European traders, of Chinese loyalists and Japanese modernizers, and of the generations who have forged a democratic society in the shadow of a superpower. This book will trace this intricate journey, exploring the forces that have shaped this island's remarkable history and illuminate its path in the 21st century.

Long before the first European ships sighted its shores and centuries before the first Han Chinese settlements took root, the island of Taiwan was already ancient land. Its geological story begins between four and five million years ago, born from a violent collision of tectonic plates—the continental Eurasian Plate and the oceanic Philippine Sea Plate. This immense geological pressure buckled the earth's crust, thrusting rugged mountain ranges skyward and forming the island we know today. Throughout the Pleistocene Ice Age, dramatic fluctuations in climate caused sea levels to rise and fall repeatedly. During periods of glaciation, the water receded to such an extent that the Taiwan Strait, today a shallow body of water no more than 100 meters deep, became a wide land bridge connecting the island to the Asian mainland. This terrestrial link, exposed for long stretches of time, allowed mainland fauna—and eventually, humans—to cross over.

The earliest firm evidence of a human presence on Taiwan dates back tens of thousands of years. In the Zuojhen District of modern-day Tainan, fossilized cranial fragments and a molar tooth, collectively known as "Zuozhen Man," have been dated to between 20,000 and 30,000 years old. While no tools were found with these remains, they mark the first known chapter of human habitation. More extensive evidence comes from the southeastern coast, particularly from the Baxian Caves (八仙洞) in Changbin Township. Here, archaeologists in 1968 unearthed a trove of chipped-pebble tools, artifacts of a Paleolithic society now known as the Changbin culture. These early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, living in the natural shelter of sea caves and crafting simple, unpolished flake tools from pebbles gathered on the shore. For millennia, they subsisted on the island's rich wildlife, hunting boar and deer, while also gathering resources from the sea. The Changbin culture persisted for an immense span of time, with sites dated from as early as 30,000 years ago to as recently as 5,000 years ago.

A profound transformation occurred around 6,000 years ago, signaling the dawn of a new era. The arrival of a new people and new technologies marked the beginning of Taiwan’s Neolithic Period. This pivotal moment is defined by the abrupt appearance of the Dapenkeng culture (大坌坑文化), named after a site in present-day New Taipei City where its remnants were first identified. Unlike the Paleolithic Changbin people, who seemed to evolve in isolation, scholars believe the Dapenkeng culture was not a local development but was brought to the island by migrants crossing the strait. These newcomers initiated a sedentary, agricultural society. They brought with them the knowledge of farming, cultivating crops like rice and millet, which provided a more stable food source than hunting and gathering alone.

The signature of the Dapenkeng culture is its distinctive pottery: thick, gritty, cord-marked earthenware jars and bowls. Their toolkit was also far more advanced than that of their predecessors. They produced highly polished stone adzes for clearing land and working wood, pecked pebbles likely used as net sinkers for fishing, and thin, triangular points made of green slate. The Dapenkeng people spread rapidly, with their settlements appearing quickly all along the coasts of the main island and the outlying Penghu archipelago. Heavily reliant on marine resources in addition to their farming, they established a way of life perfectly adapted to an island environment. It is this culture that most scholars believe represents the arrival of the ancestors of today's Taiwanese indigenous peoples.

The homogenous Dapenkeng culture eventually gave way to a fascinating tapestry of distinct regional cultures. Around 2500 BCE, societies across the island began to develop unique local characteristics, leading to a vibrant mosaic of Neolithic communities. In the central and southern parts of the island, the Fengpitou (鳳鼻頭) culture became known for its fine, red, cord-marked pottery. Other distinct cultures that emerged from this diversification include the Niumatou and Yingpu in central Taiwan, and the Niuchouzi and Dahu in the southwest. These societies continued to refine their agricultural practices and adapt to the specific environments of their respective regions, creating a complex web of interconnected yet distinct prehistoric communities.

One of the most remarkable developments of the later Neolithic period was the flourishing of jade craftsmanship, which reached its zenith with the Beinan culture (卑南文化) in the southeast, between 1500 BCE and 300 BCE. The Beinan site, located in Taitung, is the largest prehistoric site discovered in Taiwan, revealing a large cemetery with over 2,000 slate coffins. The quality and quantity of the grave goods unearthed here are astonishing, with some coffins containing hundreds of beautiful jade ornaments. The people of the Beinan culture were master artisans, creating intricate earrings, pendants, and beads. The raw nephrite jade was sourced from Fengtian in Hualien, yet finished products from this source have been found at over 100 sites across Taiwan and even as far as the Philippines and Vietnam, indicating the existence of a vast and sophisticated maritime trade network.

The final phase of Taiwan's prehistory, the Iron Age, began around 2,000 years ago. This period is characterized by the appearance of iron tools and the development of iron-smelting technology. One of the most significant Iron Age societies was the Shisanhang culture (十三行文化), located near the mouth of the Tamsui River in the northwest. Excavations at the Shisanhang site have revealed evidence of iron smelting, making its people one of only two prehistoric communities in Taiwan known to have mastered this technology. The goods they produced, along with other items like glass and gold artifacts, suggest they were part of a robust maritime trade network. The diet of the Shisanhang people was diverse, including cultivated rice, domesticated animals, and hunted and gathered proteins, which contributed to their good overall health.

Crucially, the story of prehistoric Taiwan is not confined to the island itself. It is the widely accepted wellspring of one of the most remarkable human migrations in history: the Austronesian expansion. The Austronesian language family is one of the largest in the world, spoken by peoples from Madagascar off the coast of Africa to Easter Island in the Pacific, and from Taiwan in the north to New Zealand in the south. A convergence of linguistic, archaeological, and genetic evidence points to Taiwan as the urheimat, or ancestral homeland, of all Austronesian-speaking peoples.

The linguistic evidence is particularly compelling. The Austronesian language family is divided into ten primary subgroups or branches. Nine of these ten branches are found exclusively among the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. The tenth branch, known as Malayo-Polynesian, encompasses all other Austronesian languages spoken outside of Taiwan—hundreds of them spread across the Pacific and Indian Oceans. This linguistic diversity concentrated in a small geographic area strongly suggests that the language family originated on the island and diversified over a long period before a small group migrated outward, carrying with them what would become the Malayo-Polynesian branch.

This "Out of Taiwan" model is further supported by archaeology. The technologies of the Dapenkeng culture—including their pottery, polished adzes, and cultivation of rice and millet—appear in the northern Philippines around the same time that linguists estimate the Malayo-Polynesian branch began to spread. It is believed that, driven perhaps by population growth, these Neolithic farmers set out from Taiwan in outrigger canoes around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, beginning a millennia-long journey across the seas. Recent genetic studies, including the analysis of an 8,000-year-old human skeleton from Liang Island just off the mainland coast, provide a link between the pre-Austronesian populations of southern China and the Neolithic inhabitants of Taiwan, tracing a path for this momentous migration. These ancient seafarers were the pioneers who, starting from the shores of prehistoric Taiwan, would go on to populate a vast portion of the globe, carrying their language, culture, and technologies across the waves.