A History of Maharashtra

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 Ancient Maharashtra: Prehistory and the Satavahanas
• Chapter 2 The Vakatakas and the Rise of Regional Kingdoms
• Chapter 3 The Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas: A Golden Age
• Chapter 4 The Yadavas of Devagiri and the Arrival of Islam
• Chapter 5 The Bahmani Sultanate and its Successors
• Chapter 6 The Rise of the Marathas: Shahaji and the Early Life of Shivaji
• Chapter 7 Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and the Foundation of the Maratha Empire
• Chapter 8 The Reign of Sambhaji and the Mughal-Maratha Wars
• Chapter 9 The Maratha Confederacy under the Peshwas
• Chapter 10 The Third Battle of Panipat and its Aftermath
• Chapter 11 The Anglo-Maratha Wars and the Decline of the Empire
• Chapter 12 Maharashtra under British Rule: Social and Economic Changes
• Chapter 13 The Social Reform Movement: Phule, Shahu, and Ambedkar
• Chapter 14 The Freedom Struggle in Maharashtra: Tilak and Gokhale
• Chapter 15 The Samyukta Maharashtra Movement and the Formation of the State
• Chapter 16 The Politics of Maharashtra: From Yashwantrao Chavan to the Present
• Chapter 17 The Economic Development of Maharashtra: Agriculture and Industry
• Chapter 18 Mumbai: The Financial Capital and its Evolution
• Chapter 19 The Cultural Landscape: Literature, Theatre, and Cinema
• Chapter 20 Religious and Philosophical Traditions of Maharashtra
• Chapter 21 The Forts of Maharashtra: Sentinels of History
• Chapter 22 The Caves of Ajanta and Ellora: A World Heritage
• Chapter 23 The Cuisine of Maharashtra: A Gastronomic Journey
• Chapter 24 Contemporary Maharashtra: Challenges and Opportunities
• Chapter 25 The Future of Maharashtra: A Vision for the 21st Century
• Afterword

Nestled in the western and central part of the Indian peninsula, Maharashtra is a land of incredible diversity, both in its geography and its history. Occupying a significant portion of the Deccan Plateau, its territory is marked by the rugged peaks of the Sahyadri mountain range, vast plateaus, and a long coastline along the Arabian Sea. This varied landscape has been the silent observer of a history that is as complex and vibrant as the land itself. From ancient rock-cut caves that whisper tales of early civilizations to the bustling metropolis of Mumbai, a global financial hub, Maharashtra's journey through time is a compelling narrative of rise and fall, of cultural synthesis, and of an unyielding spirit.

The name "Maharashtra" itself is steeped in history, its origins a subject of scholarly debate. One interpretation suggests it is derived from the term "Maha" (great) and "Rashtra" (nation), signifying a "great nation." Another theory connects it to the "Maharathi," meaning great chariot drivers, who were skilled warriors that migrated south. The earliest epigraphic mention of the name appeared in the 7th century, a testament to the region's long-established identity. The language of its people, Marathi, evolved from Maharashtri Prakrit and has been the common tongue since the 9th century. This linguistic identity would later play a pivotal role in the formation of the modern state.

The historical tapestry of Maharashtra is woven with the threads of numerous dynasties and empires that have held sway over its lands. Evidence of early human settlement dates back to the Chalcolithic Jorwe culture. The region subsequently came under the influence of the Mauryan Empire in the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Following the Mauryas, the Satavahana dynasty rose to prominence, ruling for approximately 400 years and leaving behind a significant legacy in the form of trade promotion and artistic patronage, as seen in the early phases of the Ajanta Caves. The centuries that followed witnessed the rule of a succession of powerful dynasties, including the Vakatakas, Chalukyas, and Rashtrakutas, each contributing to the region's cultural and architectural heritage. The magnificent cave temples of Ellora, carved during the Rashtrakuta period, stand as a powerful symbol of this era's artistic achievements. The Yadavas of Devagiri, who made Marathi their court language, were the last of the major Hindu kingdoms before the arrival of Islamic rule in the early 14th century.

The medieval period brought with it the influence of the Delhi Sultanate, followed by the Bahmani Sultanate and its successor states, the Deccan Sultanates. This era marked a period of cultural fusion, with the introduction of Persian and Islamic elements into the local traditions, architecture, and administration. However, it was in the 17th century that Maharashtra witnessed the rise of its most iconic figure, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. His establishment of the Maratha Empire challenged the might of the Mughal Empire and instilled a renewed sense of identity and self-rule, or 'Swaraj'. The Maratha Empire, under the leadership of Shivaji and later the Peshwas, expanded to control vast swathes of the Indian subcontinent.

The arrival of European powers on the Indian coast heralded a new chapter. The British East India Company, after a series of Anglo-Maratha wars, eventually gained control over the region in the early 19th century. British rule brought significant social and economic transformations. It was also a period of profound intellectual and social awakening. Maharashtra became a crucible for social reform movements, with visionary leaders like Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule, Shahu Maharaj, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar spearheading crusades against caste discrimination and advocating for education and women's rights. The state was also at the forefront of India's freedom struggle, producing influential nationalist leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Following India's independence in 1947, the demand for states to be reorganized along linguistic lines gained momentum across the country. In the erstwhile Bombay State, this led to the Samyukta Maharashtra Movement, a powerful mass agitation demanding a separate state for Marathi-speaking people with Mumbai as its capital. After years of struggle and sacrifice, the state of Maharashtra was finally formed on May 1, 1960.

This book, 'A History of Maharashtra', will embark on a journey through these myriad epochs. It will delve into the ancient civilizations that laid the foundation of its culture, trace the rise and fall of mighty empires, and examine the social and political movements that have shaped its destiny. From the rock-hewn splendors of Ajanta and Ellora to the formidable forts that dot its landscape, from the spiritual fervor of the Bhakti movement to the powerful call for linguistic identity, this history will explore the multifaceted narrative of a land and its people. It is a story of resilience, innovation, and an enduring cultural legacy that continues to define the vibrant and dynamic state of Maharashtra today.

The story of Maharashtra begins long before recorded history, in the deep recesses of the Stone Age. The region's river valleys, particularly those of the Tapi, Godavari, Bhima, and Krishna, have yielded evidence of human activity stretching back to the Lower Palaeolithic period. These early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, crafting crude but effective tools from stone. Sites scattered across the landscape have revealed hand-axes, cleavers, and choppers, silent testaments to the primordial struggles and triumphs of the first Maharashtrians. As millennia passed, these tools evolved, becoming more refined during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic eras, indicating a slow but steady advancement in cognitive and technical skills.

The transition to the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, saw the development of even smaller, more sophisticated stone tools known as microliths. These tiny blades, points, and scrapers were often hafted onto bone or wooden handles to create composite tools like arrows and sickles. This technological leap suggests a shift in subsistence strategies, with a greater emphasis on hunting smaller game and gathering a wider variety of plant foods. The subsequent Neolithic, or New Stone Age, marked a revolutionary change in human society with the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, though its evidence in Maharashtra is less pronounced compared to other regions. It was the dawn of a new way of life, one that would lay the groundwork for settled communities and the complexities of civilization.

The first truly widespread, settled agricultural communities in Maharashtra belong to the Chalcolithic period, or the Copper-Stone Age. Among these, the Jorwe culture is the most prominent, flourishing across large parts of the Deccan between approximately 1400 and 700 BCE. Named after the type-site of Jorwe in Ahmednagar district, this culture is known for its distinctive black-on-red pottery, turned on a fast wheel and painted with geometric designs. The people of the Jorwe culture lived in rectangular and later circular mud houses, cultivated a variety of crops, and kept domesticated animals.

Extensive excavations at sites like Daimabad in the Godavari valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima valley have provided a detailed picture of Jorwe society. Daimabad, one of the largest Jorwe settlements, has even yielded a spectacular hoard of bronze objects, including a chariot yoked to two oxen, an elephant, a rhinoceros, and a buffalo, suggesting a high level of metallurgical skill and possible contact with the late Harappan civilization. These communities were not isolated; they were part of a network of villages and larger centers, with evidence of social stratification, as seen in the varying sizes of houses and the contents of burials. The eventual decline of the Jorwe culture around 1000 BCE, possibly due to drought, marked the end of Maharashtra's long prehistoric chapter and set the stage for the dawn of the historical Iron Age.

The arrival of the Iron Age brought with it more advanced tools and weaponry, leading to further social and political developments. It was in this period that the first stirrings of state formation began to take place. By the 4th century BCE, the formidable Mauryan Empire, which had risen in the Gangetic plains, extended its influence into the Deccan. While direct evidence of Mauryan administration in Maharashtra is sparse, the presence of their characteristic Northern Black Polished Ware pottery and punch-marked coins at various sites points to significant commercial and cultural interaction. The Mauryas' successors in the north, the Sungas and Kanvas, held sway for shorter periods, but their decline created a power vacuum in the Deccan, paving the way for the rise of the region's first great indigenous dynasty.

This dynasty was the Satavahanas, who emerged in the post-Mauryan era to establish a vast empire that would dominate the Deccan for over four centuries, from the late 2nd century BCE to the early 3rd century CE. The precise origins of the Satavahanas are a matter of scholarly debate. The Puranas, ancient Hindu texts, refer to them as "Andhras," which has led some to believe they originated in the eastern Deccan, in what is now Andhra Pradesh. However, the vast majority of their early inscriptions have been found in Maharashtra, particularly around Nashik, Naneghat, and Pauni. This has led many scholars to argue for a western Deccan, or Maharashtrian, origin for the dynasty. Regardless of their initial homeland, they established their capital at Pratishthana, modern-day Paithan on the Godavari River in Aurangabad district.

The founder of the dynasty was Simuka, who is believed to have overthrown the last of the Kanva rulers. He was succeeded by his brother Kanha (Krishna), who extended the empire westward to Nashik. The third ruler, Satakarni I, was a powerful conqueror who performed the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to proclaim his sovereignty. His achievements are detailed in an inscription at Naneghat, commissioned by his wife, Naganika. This inscription describes him as 'Lord of Dakshinapatha' (the southern region), highlighting the early expansion of Satavahana power.

After an intervening period where their power was challenged by foreign invaders like the Sakas (Western Kshatrapas), the Satavahana fortunes were revived by their greatest ruler, Gautamiputra Satakarni. Ruling in the early 2nd century CE, he is celebrated in an inscription at Nashik, composed by his mother, Gautami Balashri. This glowing eulogy describes him as the destroyer of the Sakas, Yavanas (Greeks), and Pahlavas (Parthians) and the uprooter of the Kshaharata lineage, to which his great adversary, the Saka ruler Nahapana, belonged.

Gautamiputra's victory over Nahapana was a landmark event. A large hoard of Nahapana's silver coins found near Nashik bears the marks of being restruck by Gautamiputra, a powerful symbol of his triumph and the reassertion of Satavahana sovereignty. His empire, at its zenith, stretched across the Deccan, from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east, and from the Narmada River in the north to the Krishna-Tungabhadra delta in the south. The Nashik inscription gives him the grand title Trisamudra-toyapita-vahana, meaning "he whose horses drank the waters of the three seas."

Gautamiputra Satakarni's successors, such as Vasisthiputra Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni, continued to rule over a vast kingdom, though they faced ongoing conflicts with the persistent Western Kshatrapas. Yajna Sri Satakarni, one of the last significant rulers, managed to recover some territories from the Sakas. His coins, some of which bear the image of a ship, suggest a flourishing maritime trade during his reign.

The Satavahanas developed a sophisticated administrative system based on the guidelines of the Dharmashastras. The king was at the apex, but the government was less centralized than that of the Mauryas. The empire was divided into provinces called aharas, which were governed by officials known as amatyas and mahamatras. A key feature of their administration was the presence of several levels of feudatories, such as the Maharathis and Mahabhojas, who were hereditary lords with considerable local power. They also initiated the practice of granting tax-free land to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, a system that would have long-lasting implications for Indian society.

The backbone of the Satavahana economy was agriculture, which was boosted by the expansion of land under cultivation and the construction of irrigation facilities. However, it was their control over key trade routes that brought immense prosperity to the empire. They controlled the Indian sea coast and dominated the lucrative trade with the Roman Empire. Ports like Sopara and Bharuch on the western coast were bustling centers of commerce, from where Indian goods like muslin, spices, and precious stones were exported in exchange for Roman wine, glass, and gold.

This economic vibrancy is reflected in the prolific coinage issued by the Satavahanas. They were among the earliest Indian rulers to issue their own coins, which were made of lead, copper, potin (a metal alloy), and silver. They were also the first indigenous rulers to issue coins with portraits of their kings, a practice that began with Gautamiputra Satakarni. These coins, bearing legends in Prakrit written in the Brahmi script, are an invaluable source of information about the dynasty's chronology and rulers. The symbols on their coins, such as the Chaitya (a Buddhist stupa), elephants, lions, and ships, reflect the religious and maritime interests of the era.

Religiously, the Satavahana period was characterized by tolerance and patronage of multiple faiths. The rulers themselves were followers of Brahmanism and performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule. Gautamiputra Satakarni, for instance, is described as 'Ekabrahmana' (the unique Brahmana) who upheld the four-fold varna system. At the same time, the Satavahanas were remarkable patrons of Buddhism. They and their queens, as well as wealthy merchants and artisans, made generous donations for the construction and maintenance of magnificent rock-cut caves.

This patronage resulted in some of the most enduring artistic legacies of ancient India. The hills of the Sahyadris were carved into spectacular Chaityas (prayer halls) and Viharas (monasteries) for Buddhist monks. The early phases of the world-renowned Ajanta caves, and the splendid cave complexes at Bhaja, Bedsa, Karla, and Nashik, were created during their reign. The great Chaitya at Karla, with its grand facade and intricately carved pillars, is considered one of the finest examples of rock-cut architecture in India. These sites were not just religious centers but also served as resting places for traders traversing the busy trade routes, further integrating them into the economic life of the empire.

The official language of the Satavahanas was a form of Prakrit known as Maharashtri, which became the most widespread Prakrit of its time. The dynasty's patronage led to a flourishing of literature in this language. The most famous work from this period is the Gathasaptashati (or Gaha Sattasai), an anthology of 700 verses on themes of love and nature. Attributed to a Satavahana king named Hala, this collection offers a vivid glimpse into the everyday life, customs, and sentiments of the people of the Deccan. Maharashtri Prakrit would go on to have a significant literary career, even being used in the dialogues of characters in later Sanskrit plays.

By the early 3rd century CE, the mighty Satavahana empire began to decline. A combination of factors contributed to its downfall, including internal conflicts, the rise of powerful feudatories, and relentless pressure from external rivals like the Western Kshatrapas. The vast empire fragmented into smaller kingdoms as local powers asserted their independence. In the eastern Deccan, they were succeeded by the Ikshvakus, while various other dynasties, including the Abhiras in the Nashik region and the Chutus in the southwestern Deccan, carved out their own domains. In the Vidarbha region, a new power, the Vakatakas, was emerging, destined to play a pivotal role in the subsequent chapter of Maharashtra's history. The four-century-long reign of the Satavahanas thus came to an end, but their legacy was profound. They had given the Deccan its first empire, fostered economic prosperity, and left behind an unparalleled artistic and literary heritage that would continue to influence the course of Indian culture for centuries to come.