Augustus Caesar

A Roman Life

Dr Alex Bugeja, PhD

In the annals of history, few figures loom as large or cast as long a shadow as Augustus Caesar. Born Gaius Octavius, this unassuming scion of a relatively minor branch of the Roman gentry would rise to become the first emperor of Rome, forever changing the course of Western civilization. His life, a tapestry woven with threads of ambition, political intrigue, military prowess, and personal tragedy, offers a fascinating window into a pivotal era in human history. This book sets out to explore that life, tracing the remarkable journey of a man who transformed a republic teetering on the brink of collapse into an empire that would endure for centuries.

Augustus's story is not simply one of personal triumph, but also of profound historical significance. He came to power during a time of unprecedented upheaval in Rome. Decades of civil war had torn the Republic asunder, leaving its institutions weakened and its people yearning for stability. In the wake of Julius Caesar's assassination, a power vacuum emerged, drawing ambitious men into a deadly struggle for control. It was in this crucible of conflict that the young Octavius, Caesar's adopted son and heir, first demonstrated his remarkable political acumen.

Through shrewd maneuvering, strategic alliances, and a willingness to employ ruthless tactics when necessary, Augustus gradually outmaneuvered his rivals. The formation of the Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus marked a turning point, solidifying his position and paving the way for the eventual defeat of Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi. Yet, this alliance was always a fragile one, undermined by the competing ambitions of its members. The inevitable clash with Antony, culminating in the decisive Battle of Actium, left Augustus as the sole master of the Roman world.

The transition from Republic to Empire was a delicate dance, and Augustus proved himself a master of political choreography. He understood that the Roman people, while weary of war, were deeply attached to their republican traditions. Thus, he moved cautiously, carefully constructing a new political order that preserved the outward forms of the old while subtly concentrating power in his own hands. The establishment of the Principate, a system of government that would last for over two centuries, was perhaps his greatest achievement.

This book will delve into the complexities of Augustus's reign, examining his military campaigns, his diplomatic efforts, and his domestic policies. We will explore the vast expansion of the empire under his rule, from the annexation of Egypt to the conquest of Hispania, and the securing of the frontiers through a combination of force and diplomacy. We will also examine his ambitious building projects, his reforms of the Roman army and administration, and his attempts to revive traditional Roman values.

Beyond the public figure, we will also seek to understand the private man. What were his motivations, his fears, his relationships? How did personal tragedies, such as the early deaths of his potential heirs, shape his decisions? Through careful analysis of ancient sources, including letters, contemporary accounts, and the emperor's own Res Gestae, we will attempt to paint a nuanced portrait of this complex and enigmatic figure.

Augustus's legacy is a multifaceted one. He is remembered as the architect of the Pax Romana, a period of unprecedented peace and prosperity that allowed Roman civilization to flourish. His name became synonymous with imperial power, his image adorning coins and statues throughout the vast empire. Yet, his methods were often controversial, and his rise to power was paved with bloodshed and political maneuvering.

This book aims to provide a balanced and comprehensive account of Augustus's life and times. It is a story of ambition, power, and transformation, set against the backdrop of a world in transition. As we journey through the chapters that follow, we will witness the making of an emperor and the birth of an empire, a story that continues to resonate through the ages.

Gaius Octavius, the future emperor Augustus, was born in Rome on the 23rd of September, 63 BC. This seemingly unremarkable event took place during a period of great political turbulence, a time marked by the dying gasps of the Roman Republic. Yet, few could have predicted that this newborn child, hailing from a respectable but not particularly prominent family, would one day hold the fate of Rome in his hands. To understand the man who would become Augustus, it is essential to first examine the world he was born into and the family that shaped his early years.

The Rome of 63 BC was a city of stark contrasts. Opulent villas of the aristocracy stood in the shadow of teeming slums, where the urban poor eked out a precarious existence. The Forum, once the vibrant heart of republican government, was increasingly a stage for political violence and demagoguery. Ambitious generals, commanding vast armies, vied for power, their rivalries threatening to tear the Republic apart. The traditional institutions of government, the Senate and the popular assemblies, were weakened and corrupted, unable to effectively address the social and economic problems plaguing the Roman state. This was the era of figures such as Pompey the Great, a celebrated general whose military victories had earned him immense popularity, and Marcus Licinius Crassus, whose fabulous wealth gave him considerable political clout. These men, along with the rising star of Julius Caesar, formed the so-called First Triumvirate, an uneasy alliance that dominated Roman politics.

Octavius's own family, the Octavii, hailed from the town of Velletri, situated some twenty-five miles southeast of Rome. They were members of the equestrian order, a wealthy class of Roman citizens who ranked just below the senatorial aristocracy. While not part of the old patrician elite that had traditionally dominated Roman politics, the Octavii were a distinguished family in their own right. They could boast a history of public service, with ancestors who had held various local magistracies in Velletri. Octavius's great-grandfather had served as a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War, a conflict that had pitted Rome against the Carthaginian Empire for control of the Mediterranean. His grandfather, breaking with the family's military tradition, had lived to an advanced age as a local magistrate, content it would seem with a comfortable life.

Octavius's father, also named Gaius Octavius, was the first of his line to achieve prominence on the larger Roman stage. He was a 'novus homo', a new man, meaning he was the first in his family to be elected to the Roman Senate. His political career was marked by steady advancement and a reputation for competence and integrity. He served as governor of Macedonia, a strategically important province in the Balkans. There, he proved himself a capable administrator and military commander, crushing a slave revolt and earning the respect of the provincial population. Suetonius mentions a cognomen being given to Octavius - Thurinus. He adds: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town long ago called Octavius, but an altar was shown there besides, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..."

However, Octavius Senior's promising career was cut short when he died suddenly in 59 BC, when his son was only four years old. This early loss of his father undoubtedly had a profound impact on the young Octavius, although he would later mention his paternal family only briefly in his memoirs, as we shall see. The responsibility for his upbringing fell largely on his mother, Atia, and later his stepfather, Lucius Marcius Philippus. Atia was a woman of considerable intelligence and strong character, and she played a crucial role in shaping her son's early life. She belonged to the Julian family, one of the oldest and most prestigious patrician families in Rome. Her mother, Julia, was the sister of Julius Caesar, making Atia Caesar's niece and Octavius his great-nephew. This familial connection to Caesar would later prove to be of paramount importance in Octavius's rise to power.

Atia ensured that her son received the best possible education. Young Octavius was instructed by a series of tutors, learning grammar, rhetoric, literature, and philosophy. He proved to be a diligent student, displaying an early aptitude for learning. In addition to his academic studies, Octavius was also trained in the martial arts, as was customary for young Roman men of his class. He learned to ride, to use a sword and javelin, and to participate in military exercises. This combination of intellectual and physical training prepared him for the challenges of Roman public life.

Octavius's stepfather, Lucius Marcius Philippus, a former governor of Syria who would become consul in 56 BC, had his part to play in Octavius's formative years. A man of distinguished ancestry, who would later claim descent from Alexander the Great, and considerable political influence, he seems to have taken a rather limited interest in his stepson's upbringing. Nevertheless, it appears that Octavius was raised principally by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. Octavius would be selected to deliver Julia's funeral oration in 52 or 51 BC when she died, although he would still have been a preteen or a young teenager at the time. Nicolaus of Damascus mentions that at some point Octavius, being desirous to accompany Julius Caesar in his African campaign, was only persuaded to give way when his mother protested.

In 47 BC, at the age of about sixteen, Octavius received his first public honor. He was elected to the College of Pontiffs, an important religious body in Rome. This appointment, undoubtedly facilitated by his connection to Caesar, marked the beginning of his public career. In the same year he donned the 'toga virilis', the toga of manhood, another significant milestone marking the passage into manhood. The following year he was placed in charge of organizing the Greek games held in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Caesar. Although these positions were largely ceremonial, they provided Octavius with valuable experience in the public sphere and helped to raise his profile among the Roman elite.

Octavius's connection to Caesar became even more important in 46 BC, when Caesar returned to Italy after his victories in the African War. Atia, always mindful of her son's future, consented for Octavius to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey's sons. This was an opportunity for Octavius to gain military experience and to demonstrate his loyalty to Caesar. However, Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel with Caesar's army. When he recovered, he sailed to the front with a handful of companions but was shipwrecked, only managing to reach Caesar's camp by travelling through hostile territory. His determination and courage impressed Caesar, and he allowed the young man to share his carriage.

In 45 BC, after his return to Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as his principal beneficiary and adoptive son. This was an extraordinary honor and a clear indication of Caesar's confidence in his young great-nephew. At the time, Octavius was still in Apollonia, where he was continuing his studies and undergoing military training. When news of Caesar's assassination reached him in March 44 BC, Octavius was faced with a momentous decision. He could remain in Apollonia, safely removed from the political turmoil in Rome, or he could return to Italy and claim his inheritance. Many of his advisors urged him to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia, fearing for his safety. But Octavius, demonstrating the ambition and decisiveness that would characterize his later career, chose to return to Rome. This decision would set in motion a chain of events that would transform the Roman world.