A History of Malta

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Earliest Settlers: From Hunter-Gatherers to the First Farmers
• Chapter 2 The Age of Temples: A Megalithic Civilization
• Chapter 3 The Bronze Age: Warriors, Traders, and Mysterious Ruts
• Chapter 4 The Phoenician Outpost and Carthaginian Rule
• Chapter 5 Melita: The Islands Under Roman Rule
• Chapter 6 A Byzantine Province: The Eastern Roman Period
• Chapter 7 The Arab Conquest and a New Language
• Chapter 8 Norman Rule and the Return to Christendom
• Chapter 9 A Feudal Pawn: Swabians, Aragonese, and the Spanish Crown
• Chapter 10 The Knights of St. John: A New Home for the Order
• Chapter 11 The Great Siege of 1565: A Stand Against the Ottoman Empire
• Chapter 12 A Baroque Jewel: The Knights' Legacy in Art and Architecture
• Chapter 13 The Order's Decline and the French Invasion
• Chapter 14 The British Arrive: From Protectorate to Crown Colony
• Chapter 15 Fortress Malta: A Naval Bastion of the British Empire
• Chapter 16 The Language Question and the Rise of Self-Government
• Chapter 17 The Second Great Siege: Malta in World War II
• Chapter 18 The Road to Independence
• Chapter 19 The State of Malta: The First Years of a New Nation
• Chapter 20 Dom Mintoff and the Forging of a Republic
• Chapter 21 The Political Crisis of the 1980s
• Chapter 22 The Path to Europe: The EU Membership Bid
• Chapter 23 Malta in the European Union
• Chapter 24 A Nation in Turmoil: The Political Crisis of 2019-2020
• Chapter 25 Contemporary Malta: New Challenges and Social Change in the 21st Century
• Afterword
• Glossary

At the heart of the Mediterranean Sea lies a small archipelago, a cluster of limestone islands that, despite their diminutive size, boast a history as rich and dramatic as any great land-based empire. These are the Maltese Islands—Malta, Gozo, and Comino—and their story is one of astonishing resilience, strategic importance, and a continuous layering of cultures that has created a nation unique in its character and heritage. For millennia, this tiny outpost has stood at the crossroads of civilizations, a coveted prize for empires, a sanctuary for seafarers, and a crucible where the great powers of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East have met, clashed, and mingled. To understand Malta is to understand the grand sweep of Mediterranean history itself, distilled into a few hundred square kilometres of rock.

This book, 'A History of Malta: The Maltese Islands from Prehistory to the Present Day', embarks on a journey through this remarkable past. Our narrative begins in the deep mists of prehistory, long before the written word, when the first humans crossed the sea from Sicily to inhabit these shores. We will explore the lives of these early settlers, the hunter-gatherers and farmers who adapted to this new environment. Their story culminates in one of the most astonishing achievements of the ancient world: the construction of the Megalithic Temples. These architectural marvels, older than the pyramids of Egypt and Stonehenge, stand as silent monuments to a sophisticated and mysterious civilization that flourished for over a millennium before vanishing, leaving behind more questions than answers.

The dawn of antiquity brought new peoples and new powers to Malta's shores. The seafaring Phoenicians recognized the islands' strategic value, establishing a trading post that would later fall under the control of their powerful colony, Carthage. We will trace the islands' integration into the wider classical world, a process accelerated when they passed into the hands of the burgeoning Roman Republic during the Punic Wars. Under Roman rule, the islands, known as Melita, prospered, adopting Latin, Roman customs, and, according to tradition, Christianity, following the dramatic shipwreck of the Apostle Paul. The fall of Rome did not end Malta's strategic significance; it merely changed the masters. The islands were absorbed into the Byzantine Empire, serving as an outpost of Eastern Christendom as the old world order fragmented.

A pivotal transformation occurred in the 9th century with the arrival of Arab forces from North Africa. The Aghlabid conquest ushered in a new era, leaving an indelible mark on the islands, most notably in the language. The Maltese language, a unique Semitic tongue with a Latin alphabet, stands as a living testament to this period of Arab influence and the subsequent repopulation of the islands. This chapter of Malta's history closed with the Norman conquest in 1091, which tethered the islands' destiny firmly to Christian Europe once again. For the next four centuries, Malta became a feudal appendage of the Kingdom of Sicily, passed between a succession of European noble houses—Swabians, Angevins, and the Aragonese—its fate decided in the courts of distant monarchs.

The year 1530 marked another profound turning point. The Spanish Emperor, Charles V, granted the islands to the Knights of the Order of St. John, a military-religious order that had recently been driven from its stronghold on Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire. The arrival of the Knights transformed Malta from a forgotten feudal backwater into a formidable bastion of Christendom. They fortified the harbours, built magnificent cities, and cultivated a new cultural and artistic identity. Their defining moment came in 1565 with the Great Siege, a brutal and heroic struggle in which the Order and the Maltese people successfully repelled a massive Ottoman invasion, a victory that resonated across Europe. For over two and a half centuries, the Knights ruled, leaving behind a legacy of baroque architecture, art, and a distinctly martial identity.

The Order's long reign came to an abrupt end in 1798 with the arrival of a new, revolutionary force: Napoleon Bonaparte. The French occupation was brief but transformative, sweeping away the last vestiges of feudalism. However, French rule quickly soured, leading to a popular uprising that, with the help of the British Navy, expelled the French garrison. This invited a new power to the islands. What began as a British protectorate evolved into a formal colony, and Malta became the linchpin of British naval power in the Mediterranean. For the next century and a half, the islands served as a vital military and naval fortress, the headquarters of the Mediterranean Fleet, and a crucial link in the chain of the British Empire, especially after the opening of the Suez Canal.

The 20th century tested the resilience of the Maltese people as never before. During the Second World War, the islands endured another 'Great Siege', a relentless aerial bombardment by Italian and German forces. The heroism of its defenders and the endurance of its civilian population earned Malta the George Cross, Britain's highest civilian award for gallantry, which is now proudly displayed on the nation's flag. The post-war years were a period of political awakening and gradual decolonization, a complex journey from a self-governing colony to full independence. In 1964, Malta became a sovereign state, and a decade later, it cast off the last symbolic tie to its colonial past by becoming a republic.

The history of independent Malta has been no less eventful. It has been a story of forging a new identity on the world stage, navigating the turbulent waters of Cold War politics, and weathering periods of intense internal political division. The latter half of the 20th century saw the nation establish new alliances, close the final chapter on its role as a foreign military base, and fundamentally reshape its economy. The journey culminated in 2004 with Malta's accession to the European Union, anchoring its future firmly within the family of European nations. In recent years, the nation has grappled with the challenges of modernity, from rapid economic development and social change to political crises that have tested the strength of its institutions.

This book aims to tell this long and multifaceted story in a straightforward and engaging manner. It is a tale of survival against the odds, of a small island community constantly adapting to the powerful forces shaping its destiny. From the prehistoric builders of Ġgantija to the knights in shining armour, from the sailors of the British Empire to the politicians of the European Union, the history of Malta is a rich tapestry woven from countless threads. It is a story of conflict and coexistence, faith and fortitude, and the creation of a unique cultural identity that continues to evolve to this day. We invite you to delve into this captivating history and discover the remarkable story of the Maltese Islands.

Long before any human set foot on the Maltese Islands, this small outcrop of limestone was a world unto itself, a lost landscape populated by creatures that seem drawn from fantasy. During the vast ice ages of the Pleistocene epoch, the sea level of the Mediterranean was dramatically lower. For long periods, a land bridge connected Malta to Sicily, and by extension, to mainland Europe, allowing terrestrial animals to meander south. When the glaciers retreated and the seas rose, these animals became trapped, marooned on what was now an island. This isolation triggered a curious evolutionary phenomenon known as insular dwarfism. With limited food resources and no large predators, gigantic species shrank over generations.

The most spectacular evidence of this prehistoric world lies preserved in the dark recesses of Għar Dalam, the "Cave of Darkness". Excavations here have revealed a layer cake of history, with the lowest levels containing the fossilised bones of these extraordinary animals. Herds of dwarf elephants, some no taller than a large dog, once roamed the land. They shared this strange habitat with pygmy hippopotamuses, creatures that, while still formidable, were a fraction of the size of their African relatives. The islands were also home to giant swans, bears, and red deer. For millennia, this unique ecosystem thrived, a miniature world of remarkable beasts. It is a common and romantic notion that the first humans hunted these creatures to extinction, but the geological record tells a different story. The layers of earth separating the animal bones from the first signs of human activity show that these dwarf species vanished thousands of years before people arrived, likely due to dramatic climate shifts and the inherent fragility of their isolated island existence.

There has also been persistent speculation about an even earlier human presence. In the early 20th century, the discovery in Għar Dalam of two molar teeth with a feature known as taurodontism—an enlarged pulp cavity—led to the exciting claim that Neanderthals had lived on Malta. This trait, while common in Neanderthals, also appears in modern humans, making it inconclusive evidence on its own. Despite enthusiastic arguments over the years, the claim has never been substantiated with further finds, such as the distinctive stone tools associated with Neanderthal cultures. The consensus in the scientific community, therefore, remains that there is no definitive proof of any human presence on Malta before the arrival of modern humans.

For a long time, it was believed that the first chapter of Malta’s human story began around 5400 BC, with the arrival of farmers from Sicily. But recent groundbreaking discoveries have pushed that date back by more than a thousand years, revealing an entirely new prologue. The true pioneers, it turns out, were not farmers, but Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Sometime around 6500 BC, these intrepid people made a remarkable journey. They set out from the shores of Sicily and crossed approximately one hundred kilometres of open water to reach Malta. This was the longest sea crossing known to have been undertaken by hunter-gatherers in the Mediterranean, a testament to their advanced seafaring skills and courage, especially considering they travelled in simple vessels like dugout canoes without the aid of sails.

What drew them across the horizon to this small, remote island remains a mystery. Perhaps it was the spirit of exploration, pressure from other groups in Sicily, or the sighting of migrating birds that hinted at land beyond the visible sea. Whatever their motivation, their arrival marked the moment Malta truly entered human history. The most significant evidence of their presence has been unearthed at Latnija Cave, in the northern region of Mellieħa. Excavations led by a team from the Max Planck Institute and the University of Malta have revealed a site that has overturned decades of consensus. Here, archaeologists found the clear signatures of a settled community: stone tools, the remains of hearths where fires once burned, and beds of ash.

Analysis of the remains at Latnija Cave paints a vivid picture of the lives of these first Maltese. They were skilled hunters and resourceful foragers, adapting expertly to their new environment. Their diet was remarkably diverse. They hunted the local red deer, a species now extinct, as well as foxes and tortoises. But they also turned to the sea, which provided a rich and reliable bounty. The cave floor was littered with the remains of their meals: cooked fish, seals, sea urchins, crabs, and thousands of edible sea snails. This varied diet, combining terrestrial and marine resources, was typical of Mesolithic coastal communities and demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the island's ecosystem. Their toolkit, crafted from stone, was suited to this lifestyle, designed for hunting, butchering, and processing the materials they gathered. For over a millennium, this hunter-gatherer culture endured, living in harmony with an island that was more wooded and wild than it is today.

Then, around 5400 BC, a new group of people arrived, bringing with them a revolution that would permanently transform the islands. These were Neolithic farmers, and like their predecessors, they almost certainly hailed from Sicily. Their arrival was not a subtle integration but a replacement of the pre-existing population. Whether this transition was peaceful or violent is lost to time, but the hunter-gatherer way of life vanished, superseded by a new, sedentary culture based on agriculture. These newcomers brought with them the foundational elements of the Neolithic revolution: domesticated animals—goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs—and the seeds of cultivated crops like wheat and barley.

These first farmers settled across the islands, initially making their homes in the natural caves that pockmark Malta's limestone landscape, such as in the upper layers of Għar Dalam. They also built settlements of small huts in open areas, with the village of Skorba providing the most extensively studied example of one of these early communities. Their primary challenge was the creation of arable land. This could only be achieved at the expense of the natural tree cover that blanketed the islands. Using slash-and-burn techniques, they began to clear the native conifer forests to make way for their fields. This act of deforestation, a necessity for their survival, set in motion a long process of environmental change that would have profound consequences.

The culture of these early farmers is known as the Għar Dalam phase, named after the cave where their distinctive pottery was first identified. This pottery shows strong similarities to that of the Stentinello culture in Sicily, confirming the geographic origins of these settlers. The designs were often decorated with impressed patterns, sometimes using seashells to create the markings. Over the centuries, their pottery styles evolved, suggesting continued contact and cultural exchange with communities in Sicily and beyond. Life for these communities was a constant cycle of planting, tending to livestock, and harvesting, supplemented by fishing and occasional hunting. They possessed a simple but effective technology, using polished stone tools like axes for clearing land and sickles for harvesting crops.

For a time, this new way of life was successful. The population grew, and farming communities spread across both Malta and Gozo. However, their agricultural methods, combined with the islands' inherent environmental limitations, were unsustainable. The shallow topsoil, once stripped of its protective forest cover, was vulnerable. The intensive farming practices of the Neolithic settlers gradually degraded the soil, while the grazing of their livestock prevented the regeneration of woodland. As the centuries passed, the fertility of the land began to wane.

The final blow to this first farming society appears to have come from a force beyond their control: the climate. Scientific analysis of ancient pollen and soil cores, undertaken as part of the FRAGSUS project, has revealed a period of dramatic climate change. A prolonged and severe drought set in, and the already degraded islands became too dry to support agriculture. Faced with failing crops, dwindling water sources, and an exhausted landscape, the society collapsed. The evidence suggests that the islands were completely abandoned.

For about a thousand years, Malta appears to have been uninhabited. This significant break in human occupation, a silent millennium in the archaeological record, marks the end of the first chapter of Malta's human story. The island experiment had failed. The forests were gone, the soil was depleted, and the first farmers had vanished, leaving behind only their pottery shards and stone tools as evidence of their existence. The islands, stripped and arid, were left to recover, awaiting the arrival of a second wave of colonists who would bring with them a new and extraordinary vision, one that would give rise to the great stone temples.