A Short History of Europe

• Introduction
• Chapter 1 The Dawn of Europe: From Prehistory to the First Civilizations (c. 45000 BC - 800 BC)
• Chapter 2 Classical Antiquity: The Rise of Greece (c. 800 BC - 146 BC)
• Chapter 3 The Roman Republic and Empire: Shaping the Mediterranean World (c. 509 BC - AD 476)
• Chapter 4 The Early Middle Ages: The Transformation of the Roman World and the Rise of New Kingdoms (c. AD 476 - 1000)
• Chapter 5 The High Middle Ages: Feudalism, Crusades, and the Flourishing of Medieval Culture (c. 1000 - 1300)
• Chapter 6 The Late Middle Ages: Crisis and Change – Famine, Plague, and War (c. 1300 - 1453)
• Chapter 7 The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Art, Learning, and Humanism (c. 1350 - 1550)
• Chapter 8 The Age of Discovery: European Exploration and Global Expansion (c. 1450 - 1650)
• Chapter 9 The Reformation: Religious Division and Conflict (c. 1517 - 1648)
• Chapter 10 The Age of Absolutism: Monarchical Power and State Building (c. 1648 - 1789)
• Chapter 11 The Scientific Revolution: A New Way of Thinking
• Chapter 12 The Enlightenment: Reason, Rights, and Revolution (c. 1700 - 1789)
• Chapter 13 The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era: Reshaping Europe (1789 - 1815)
• Chapter 14 The Industrial Revolution: Technological Change and Social Transformation
• Chapter 15 The Age of Revolutions and Nationalism: Reshaping Nations and Ideologies (1815 - 1871)
• Chapter 16 The Age of Imperialism: European Dominance and Global Empires (c. 1870 - 1914)
• Chapter 17 The Road to War: Tensions and Alliances in the Early 20th Century
• Chapter 18 The First World War: A Continent in Conflict (1914 - 1918)
• Chapter 19 The Interwar Period: Economic Depression and the Rise of Dictatorships (1919 - 1939)
• Chapter 20 The Second World War: Global Conflict and its Aftermath (1939 - 1945)
• Chapter 21 The Cold War: A Divided Europe and Global Standoff (c. 1947 - 1991)
• Chapter 22 Post-War Recovery and the Beginnings of European Integration (c. 1945 - 1973)
• Chapter 23 The Fall of Communism and the End of the Cold War (1989 - 1991)
• Chapter 24 Europe in the Late 20th and Early 21st Century: New Challenges and Opportunities
• Chapter 25 Contemporary Europe: Integration, Identity, and the Future

Welcome to "A Short History of Europe," a journey through millennia of human experience on a continent that, despite its relatively modest size, has profoundly shaped the trajectory of global events. To embark on a history of Europe is to delve into a story brimming with innovation, conflict, breathtaking artistic achievements, and catastrophic human failings. It’s a narrative of emperors and peasants, philosophers and fanatics, all contributing to the complex, ever-evolving tapestry we call European civilization. This book aims to navigate this vast expanse, offering a guide to the major developments, the pivotal moments, and the enduring legacies that have forged Europe and influenced the world far beyond its shores.

The very name "Europe" is ancient, likely originating from the Near Eastern word for sunset, "ereb," signifying the lands to the west. Greek mythology later personified Europa as a Phoenician princess abducted by Zeus, who, disguised as a white bull, carried her across the sea to Crete. This tale, perhaps, offers an early hint of Europe’s destiny: a land intertwined with its neighbors, shaped by external influences, and a stage for dramatic, often unforeseen, transformations. Geographically, it’s often described as a peninsula of peninsulas, jutting off the vast Asian landmass, with a long, indented coastline that has invited maritime adventure and interaction.

But where does Europe truly begin and end? Its western, northern, and southern boundaries are clearly defined by oceans and seas – the Atlantic, the Arctic, and the Mediterranean. The eastern frontier, however, has always been more porous, a shifting line of cultural, political, and geographical demarcation often drawn along the Ural Mountains and River, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasus Mountains. This ambiguity itself is part of Europe’s story, reflecting centuries of migration, conquest, and the ebb and flow of empires that rarely respected neat geographical lines. This history, therefore, will concern itself not just with a fixed landmass, but with the peoples, ideas, and movements that have identified with, or been identified as, "European."

To call this a "short" history is, admittedly, an act of considerable audacity, perhaps even a touch of madness. Condensing tens of thousands of years of human activity, encompassing countless cultures, wars, revolutions, and artistic flowerings into a single volume necessitates a broad brush. Many fascinating details, compelling individuals, and significant local histories will invariably receive less attention than they might deserve in a more encyclopedic work. The ambition here is not to be exhaustive – an impossible task – but to trace the main currents and critical turning points that have shaped the continent’s past and continue to influence its present.

The goal is to provide a clear, engaging, and coherent narrative that illuminates how Europe came to be. We will traverse a timeline that stretches from the earliest human inhabitants, through the rise and fall of mighty empires, the spiritual awakenings and schisms, the intellectual revolutions, the devastating conflicts, and the remarkable efforts towards cooperation and unity. It’s a story of how a collection of disparate tribes and territories gradually, and often violently, developed into a complex web of interconnected societies that, for better or worse, projected their power and ideas across the globe.

Imagine, for a moment, the world of Europe’s earliest settlers, tens of thousands of years ago. Their lives were dominated by the rhythms of nature, the hunt for sustenance, and the struggle for survival against the elements. Their communities were small, their tools rudimentary, their understanding of the vast world around them framed by myth and immediate experience. Their mark on the landscape was fleeting, yet they were the pioneers, laying the almost invisible foundations for all that was to come.

Contrast that with the Europe of today: a continent of bustling metropolises, sophisticated technologies, complex political and economic unions, and instant global communication. The journey from that distant past to the present is one of almost unimaginable transformation. This history will attempt to bridge that gap, exploring the processes of change, the innovations that propelled societies forward, and the ideologies that both united and tragically divided its peoples. It is a narrative of constant flux, for Europe has never been a static entity, but rather a dynamic and often turbulent work in progress.

One of the most persistent themes weaving through this continental tapestry is the interplay between forces of unity and fragmentation. For centuries, the dream of a unified Europe, a new Roman Empire or a universal Christendom, has captivated leaders and thinkers. From Charlemagne’s vast but short-lived empire to the Napoleonic conquests and the more recent project of the European Union, the drive to bring Europe’s diverse peoples under a single banner, or at least a common set of rules, has been a powerful motivator.

Yet, this ambition has always been countered by equally potent forces of division. The geographical diversity of the continent, with its mountain ranges, dense forests, and distinct river valleys, fostered the development of unique local cultures, languages, and identities. Feudal loyalties, dynastic rivalries, burgeoning nationalisms, and profound ideological disagreements have repeatedly fractured Europe, leading to centuries of conflict. This enduring tension between the desire for commonality and the assertion of difference is a central thread in our story.

Another crucial element is the almost constant movement of peoples. Europe has been a crucible of migrations, a destination for some and a point of departure for others, since prehistory. The arrival of early farmers from the Near East, the so-called "Barbarian Invasions" during the decline of Rome, the Viking raids and settlements, the Mongol incursions, the Ottoman expansion into the Balkans – these are just a few of the major population shifts that have reshaped the continent's demographic and cultural landscape. In later centuries, Europeans themselves would embark on vast migrations, settling new lands across the globe.

This constant intermingling, though often accompanied by violence and displacement, also fostered exchange and innovation. Ideas, technologies, and customs have rarely respected borders, spreading along trade routes, through religious networks, and in the wake of armies. Europe, as such, became a remarkable laboratory for intellectual and technological ferment. From the philosophical inquiries of ancient Greece and the legal frameworks of Rome to the scientific revolution that reshaped humanity's understanding of the cosmos and the Enlightenment ideals that challenged established orders, European thinkers and inventors have produced ideas that have had a profound and lasting global impact.

The continent also gave birth to artistic movements that continue to inspire awe and wonder. The soaring cathedrals of the Gothic era, the humanistic masterpieces of the Renaissance, the dramatic intensity of Baroque art, the revolutionary compositions of classical and romantic music, and the challenging innovations of modernism – these cultural flowerings are testament to a vibrant and evolving creative spirit. These achievements, however, often emerged from periods of intense social upheaval, patronage by the powerful, or as reactions against prevailing norms.

Of course, no history of Europe can shy away from the darker aspects of its past. The continent has been the stage for relentless and often brutal conflict. From the Punic Wars of antiquity to the devastating World Wars of the twentieth century, European powers have frequently turned on one another with ferocious intensity, exporting their rivalries to other parts of the globe. Religious persecution, political repression, and the systematic horrors of ideologies like Nazism and Stalinism have left deep scars on the European conscience and the world at large.

Furthermore, Europe’s relationship with the wider world has been complex and often exploitative. The Age of Discovery, while a period of daring exploration and expanding horizons for Europeans, heralded an era of colonialism and empire-building that subjected vast populations in the Americas, Africa, and Asia to foreign domination. The wealth extracted from these empires fueled European economic growth and industrialization, but it came at an immense human cost. Understanding this legacy is crucial to understanding Europe's place in the modern world.

Our narrative will unfold in a broadly chronological fashion, beginning with the mists of prehistory in Chapter One, exploring the lives of the first Europeans and the gradual development of agriculture and settled communities. We will then journey to classical antiquity, witnessing the extraordinary cultural and political efflorescence of ancient Greece, followed by the rise of Rome, whose empire would come to dominate the Mediterranean world, leaving an indelible mark on European law, language, and infrastructure.

The subsequent transformation of the Roman world and the emergence of new Germanic kingdoms during the Early Middle Ages will set the scene for a period often characterized by fragmentation but also by the enduring influence of Christianity and the stirrings of new societal structures. The High Middle Ages will see the development of feudalism, the drama of the Crusades, the flourishing of chivalric culture, and the rise of universities, laying intellectual groundwork for centuries to come.

However, this era of growth would be dramatically curtailed in the Late Middle Ages by crisis and change, as famine, the terrifying Black Death, and protracted conflicts like the Hundred Years' War reshaped the social and political landscape. Out of this turmoil, the Renaissance would emerge, signaling a "rebirth" of classical learning, artistic innovation, and a new focus on human potential, fundamentally altering the cultural and intellectual climate of Europe.

Close on its heels, the Age of Discovery saw European explorers venture across the oceans, initiating an era of global expansion and encounter, while the Reformation shattered the religious unity of Western Christendom, leading to profound theological disputes and devastating wars of religion. Amidst this religious and political upheaval, the Age of Absolutism witnessed the consolidation of monarchical power and the formation of centralized states, alongside the groundbreaking Scientific Revolution, which offered a new empirical way of understanding the natural world.

These intellectual currents flowed into the Enlightenment, a period championing reason, individual rights, and challenging traditional authority, which in turn helped to ignite the French Revolution. This cataclysmic event, along with the subsequent Napoleonic Era, would radically reshape the political map of Europe and unleash the powerful forces of liberalism and nationalism. Simultaneously, the Industrial Revolution, beginning in Britain, began to transform economies, societies, and landscapes at an unprecedented pace, creating new wealth and new social problems.

The nineteenth century became an age of revolutions, nationalism, and the forging of new nation-states, alongside the peak of European imperialism, as colonial powers carved up much of the rest of the globe. Growing tensions, complex alliances, and an escalating arms race in the early twentieth century eventually led to the cataclysm of the First World War, a conflict that shattered empires and societies, ushering in an era of profound disillusionment.

The turbulent Interwar Period was marked by economic depression, the collapse of democratic governments, and the ominous rise of totalitarian dictatorships in several European countries. This ultimately paved the way for the even greater devastation of the Second World War, a global conflict that brought unprecedented destruction and horror to the continent and beyond, culminating in a radically altered geopolitical landscape.

The post-war world saw Europe divided by the Iron Curtain, becoming a central battleground in the ideological and political standoff of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. Yet, this period also witnessed remarkable economic recovery in Western Europe and the pioneering steps towards European integration, aimed at preventing future wars and fostering shared prosperity. The eventual fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe in the late twentieth century heralded the end of the Cold War and opened a new chapter of reunification and transformation for the continent.

Our journey will continue into the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, examining the challenges and opportunities facing a more integrated but also increasingly diverse Europe. We will touch upon issues such as the expansion of the European Union, the rise of new nationalisms, economic uncertainties, migration, and Europe's evolving role in a rapidly changing global order. Finally, we will consider contemporary Europe, reflecting on its ongoing search for identity, purpose, and its path into the future.

Throughout this historical exploration, we will strive to connect the dots across time, showing how events and developments in one era laid the groundwork for those that followed. While the focus will often be on larger political, social, and economic forces, we must remember that history is ultimately a human story. It is made by individuals – famous, infamous, and anonymous – whose choices, ambitions, fears, and innovations have collectively shaped the European experience. Though a "short history" cannot delve deeply into countless individual biographies, their collective presence is the bedrock upon which this narrative is built.

A word on how we "know" what we narrate: history is not a perfect record of the past handed down on stone tablets. It is an ongoing process of interpretation, based on the available evidence – archaeological finds, written documents, oral traditions, artistic creations, and much more. Historians sift through these remnants, piecing together narratives, debating causes and consequences, and constantly revising our understanding as new evidence emerges or new perspectives are brought to bear. This book, therefore, represents one such path through the vast and complex terrain of European history, drawing on generations of scholarship.

It is also important to acknowledge that the past can be viewed from many angles, and different individuals and groups will have experienced events in vastly different ways. We will endeavor to present a balanced account, acknowledging controversies and differing interpretations where appropriate, while maintaining a clear narrative thread. The aim is not to provide definitive, unchallengeable "Truths" with a capital T, but rather to offer a well-founded and accessible understanding of how Europe’s past has shaped its present.

The request for "a touch of humor" in such a weighty subject is a welcome one. While history itself is often deadly serious, and we must approach subjects of great suffering with due solemnity, there is also room for appreciating the ironies, the absurdities, and the sheer unlikeliness of many historical turns of events. A wry observation or a light turn of phrase can, hopefully, make the journey more engaging without diminishing the significance of the events described. This is not an academic treatise designed for specialists, but an invitation to the curious reader.

So, prepare to traverse ancient forests and crowded marketplaces, to witness the clash of armies and the quiet contemplation of scholars, to explore the grandeur of palaces and the resilience of villages. This short history of Europe is an invitation to understand a continent of immense diversity, relentless change, and enduring influence. It is a story of how a relatively small corner of the world came to play such a big role in the human drama, a story that continues to unfold. Let the journey begin.

The story of Europe's earliest inhabitants begins long before the continent, as a distinct entity, had even been conceived. It unfolds across vast stretches of time, marked by dramatic climatic shifts and the slow, tenacious spread of early human populations. Our species, Homo sapiens, was a relative latecomer to Europe, a land already walked by other hominins, most notably the Neanderthals. Evidence suggests that modern humans began making significant inroads into the continent around 45,000 years ago, possibly even earlier in some regions like Greece. Finds in locations such as Bacho Kiro cave in Bulgaria and sites in Germany and Italy attest to these early arrivals.

For thousands of years, these early modern humans shared parts of the European landscape with Neanderthals. The nature of their coexistence remains a subject of intense research and debate. Genetic evidence clearly indicates that interbreeding occurred, leaving a small percentage of Neanderthal DNA in modern non-African populations. This suggests periods of contact and interaction, though the extent and peacefulness of these encounters are unknown. Ultimately, by around 40,000 to 35,000 years ago, Neanderthals disappeared from the fossil record, their extinction likely a complex process involving climatic pressures, competition with the adaptable newcomers, and perhaps absorption into the larger Homo sapiens gene pool.

Life in Paleolithic Europe, the Old Stone Age, was a harsh existence, dictated by the rhythms of Ice Age glaciers that advanced and retreated across the northern and central parts of the continent. These early Europeans were hunter-gatherers, living in small, mobile bands. They relied on the seasonal availability of game, such as mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, reindeer, and bison, as well as fish and gathered plant foods. Their toolkit, though sophisticated for its time, consisted primarily of stone, bone, and wood. They fashioned hand axes, scrapers, and spear points, essential for survival in a challenging environment.

Despite the rigors of their daily lives, these Paleolithic peoples possessed a rich symbolic world, most strikingly expressed in their cave art. Deep within caverns like Chauvet, Lascaux, and Altamira, artists created breathtaking murals of animals, human figures, and abstract signs. The exact purpose of this art remains elusive – perhaps shamanistic rituals, hunting magic, storytelling, or clan totems – but its power and beauty are undeniable, offering a profound glimpse into the minds of our distant ancestors. These were not crude "cavemen," but people with complex social structures, beliefs, and a remarkable capacity for artistic expression.

Around 12,000 BC, as the last Ice Age drew to a close, Europe's climate began to warm, triggering significant environmental changes. Forests gradually replaced the open tundra, and many of the large Ice Age mammals disappeared. This period, known as the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (roughly 10,000 BC to 5000 BC, though varying by region), saw human populations adapt to these new conditions. Hunting strategies shifted towards smaller game like red deer, roe deer, and wild boar, and fishing and the gathering of shellfish and plants became increasingly important. Microliths, small, sharp stone flakes often set into bone or antler handles to create composite tools like harpoons and arrows, became characteristic of Mesolithic technology.

Settlements during the Mesolithic, while still often seasonal, sometimes show signs of greater permanence, particularly in resource-rich coastal or riverside locations. One remarkable example is Lepenski Vir, located in the Iron Gates gorge of the Danube River in modern-day Serbia. Flourishing between roughly 9500 and 5500 BC, this site reveals a sophisticated culture with planned trapezoidal buildings, distinctive stone sculptures depicting human-fish hybrids, and evidence of complex burial rituals. Lepenski Vir stands as a testament to the adaptability and cultural innovation of Mesolithic Europeans, demonstrating an organized societal life and artistic achievements well before the advent of agriculture in the region.

The most transformative event of this early period, however, arrived from outside Europe. The Neolithic Revolution, the shift from hunting and gathering to farming, began in the Near East's Fertile Crescent around 10,000 BC. This revolutionary way of life, involving the cultivation of crops like wheat and barley and the domestication of animals such as sheep, goats, and cattle, gradually spread into Europe. The arrival of agriculture in Europe, starting around 7000 BC in Greece and slowly moving northwest, was not merely the adoption of new techniques; it involved the migration of farming populations from Anatolia and the Levant.

The spread of farming was a slow, piecemeal process, taking several millennia to reach the northern and western fringes of the continent. Early farming communities, often characterized by their distinct pottery styles, began to transform the European landscape. The Starčevo-Körös-Criș culture, for example, emerged in Southeastern Europe, representing one of the early waves of Neolithic farmers. These groups lived in small villages, cultivating crops and raising livestock, their lives becoming more sedentary than those of their Mesolithic predecessors. Further west, the Linear Pottery culture (LBK) carried farming practices deep into Central Europe, following the fertile river valleys. Along the Mediterranean coast, the Cardial Ware culture, named for its distinctive pottery decorated with seashell impressions, marked another path of Neolithic expansion.

The adoption of agriculture had profound consequences. It allowed for larger, more settled populations, the accumulation of surplus food, and the development of new social structures. Villages grew, and with them, new forms of social organization and, likely, new beliefs and rituals tied to the agricultural cycle. The Neolithic also saw the development of new technologies, including polished stone tools (hence "Neolithic" or "New Stone Age"), pottery for storing and cooking food, and weaving for textiles.

One of the most enigmatic and enduring legacies of Neolithic Europe is the construction of megalithic monuments. From around 4800 BC, communities across Atlantic Europe, from Iberia and Brittany to Britain and Ireland, began erecting massive stone structures. These include dolmens (simple stone tombs), menhirs (standing stones), and elaborate passage graves like Newgrange in Ireland, as well as extensive stone alignments like those at Carnac in France and iconic stone circles such as Stonehenge in England. The purpose of these monuments varied – some were clearly tombs, others may have served as astronomical observatories, ceremonial centers, or markers of territory. Their construction, often involving the movement of enormous stones over considerable distances, speaks to sophisticated engineering skills, organized labor, and deeply held collective beliefs.

The transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age was driven by another technological innovation: metallurgy. While copper was the first metal to be widely used, marking a transitional period known as the Chalcolithic or Copper Age (roughly 3500 BC to 2300 BC in many parts of Europe), the true revolution came with the discovery that alloying copper with tin produced bronze. Bronze was harder and more durable than copper, making it ideal for tools, weapons, and ornaments. The quest for copper and tin ores spurred long-distance trade and contact between different European cultures.

A remarkable find from this Chalcolithic period is Ötzi the Iceman, whose astonishingly well-preserved mummy was discovered in the Ötztal Alps on the Austrian-Italian border in 1991. Dating to around 3300 BC, Ötzi carried a copper axe, a flint knife, a yew longbow, and various other tools and clothing, providing an unprecedented snapshot of life in Copper Age Europe. Analysis of his axe blade revealed that the copper originated in southern Tuscany, hundreds of kilometers away, highlighting the extensive trade networks already in place.

The Bronze Age proper in Europe is generally considered to have begun around 2300 BC in some regions, though the timing varied considerably across the continent, starting much earlier in the Aegean. This era witnessed the rise of more hierarchical societies, with chieftains and warrior elites accumulating wealth and power, often displayed through elaborate bronze weaponry, armor, and jewelry found in rich burial sites. Distinct regional cultures flourished, such as the Únětice culture in Central Europe, known for its metalworking, followed by the Tumulus culture, characterized by burials under earthen mounds or barrows, and later the Urnfield culture, which practiced cremation and the burial of ashes in pottery urns. Further north, the Nordic Bronze Age developed a unique artistic style, while along the Atlantic seaboard, maritime trade networks connected communities from Iberia to Scandinavia.

It was in the Aegean, however, that Europe's first true civilizations emerged during the Bronze Age. The Minoan civilization, centered on the island of Crete, flourished from around 2700 BC to 1450 BC. Named after the legendary King Minos, the Minoans built magnificent palace complexes, such as Knossos and Phaistos, which were centers of administration, storage, religion, and craft production. They developed a unique and vibrant art style, characterized by colorful frescoes depicting marine life, bull-leaping rituals, and elegant human figures. The Minoans were also a maritime people, trading extensively throughout the eastern Mediterranean. They developed a script known as Linear A, which remains undeciphered.

On mainland Greece, the Mycenaean civilization arose around 1600 BC, heavily influenced by the Minoans but also distinct in its character. The Mycenaeans were more militaristic, building heavily fortified citadels like Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos. They were ruled by powerful warrior kings, whose wealth and prowess are evident in spectacular finds like the gold Mask of Agamemnon. The Mycenaeans adapted the Minoan script to write an early form of Greek, known as Linear B, primarily used for administrative records. Their culture spread throughout the Aegean and beyond, establishing trading outposts and colonies.

The late Bronze Age, however, was a period of widespread disruption and collapse across the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, beginning around 1200 BC. Major urban centers were destroyed, trade routes were severed, and literacy declined or disappeared in many areas. The causes of this "Bronze Age Collapse" are still debated but likely involved a combination of factors: climate change leading to drought and famine, internal rebellions, invasions by groups known collectively as the "Sea Peoples" (whose origins are obscure), disruptions to trade in essential metals like tin, and possibly earthquakes and disease. While the Mycenaean palaces were destroyed and their civilization declined, some areas of Europe, particularly in the west and north, experienced less severe disruption and continued to develop their Bronze Age cultures.

Another significant development during the later prehistoric period was the arrival and spread of Indo-European languages. While the exact homeland and migration patterns of Proto-Indo-European speakers are still debated among linguists and archaeologists, a prominent theory suggests an origin in the Pontic-Caspian steppe region (modern-day Ukraine and southern Russia). From around 4000 BC onwards, various waves of migration or cultural diffusion are thought to have carried Indo-European languages westward into Europe, eastward into Asia, and southward into Anatolia. Over millennia, these languages diversified, giving rise to the vast majority of modern European languages, as well as many in Iran and the Indian subcontinent. This linguistic transformation was likely a complex process, involving both the movement of peoples and the adoption of new languages by existing populations.

By 800 BC, the period we are considering in this chapter was drawing to a close. The aftershocks of the Bronze Age Collapse were still being felt in many regions. Iron, a metal more readily available than the copper and tin needed for bronze, was increasingly being adopted, heralding the beginning of the Iron Age in Europe. New cultural configurations were emerging, and in Greece, the seeds of a new, brilliant civilization were being sown, one that would profoundly shape the future course of European history. The long dawn of Europe, from the first intrepid hunter-gatherers to the complex societies of the late Bronze Age, had laid the foundations for all that was to follow.